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tion m e t h o d s using recurrent selection are c o m p l e m e n t a r y , and both should b e e m ployed. A n interacting international n e t w o r k for population b r e e d i n g should be dev e l o p e d . Evaluation of population breeding procedures for different criteria should be u n d e r t a k e n . 4.4 T h e understanding of apomixis in s o r g h u m has i m p r o v e d ; t h e potential practical exploitation of apomixis in t h e vegetative production of hybrid s e e d needs to be established. Further studies of cytoplasmg e n o m e interaction as related to genetic vulnerability are required. 4.5 The important factors reducing yield are w i d e l y recognized. M o s t o f t h e s e p r o b l e m s are severe in relatively broad geographic regions. Their solution in part rests on an understanding of the m e c h a n i s m s of resistance and h o w t h e s e are inherited. Greater understanding of t h e s e factors for a l m o s t all important traits is required in t h e 1980s. 4.6 A m i n i m u m data set, including climatological parameters, cultivars used, planting and harvest dates, fertilizer application, etc., should be a c c u m u l a t e d as part of yield trial a n d screening nursery activities to facilitate better interpretation of research data. 4.7 There is n e e d to better understand t h e physiological basis of " a d a p t a t i o n " , and h o w this can be translated into practical production. 5. Production Technology 5.1 M u c h has been learned about intercropping, multiple cropping, a n d relay cropping during t h e 1970s. These techniques are c o m m o n l y associated w i t h subsistence agriculture in an effort to reduce risk; but t h e y are also e m p l o y e d , to a m o r e limited extent, w h e r e high yields are recovered f r o m responsive varieties in high-input s i t u a t i o n s . T h e indentification of h i g h - yielding varieties and hybrids selected to fit different crop relationships and managem e n t inputs, for higher yield returns than are currently being realized, should be evaluated in a range of s o r g h u m - g r o w i n g e n v i r o n m e n t s in t h e 1980s. 5.2 In Africa, and e l s e w h e r e , as pressure on land u s e increases, soil fertility is being reduced. Therefore, to increase yields, soil fertility will n e e d to be maintained and e n h a n c e d , particularly by using locally available materials such as lime, straw, ash, rock phosphate, and animal manure. The u s e of t h e s e inputs, as w e l l as other m a n a g e m e n t inputs achievable by subsistence farmers on small holdings, n e e d research e m p h a s i s during t h e 1980s. 5.3 T h e use of g o o d cultural techniques, i.e., s e e d b e d preparation, mechanical s o w i n g , and w e e d i n g , are essential to obtain g o o d results. Attention has been directed to animal-drawn i m p l e m e n t s . Research on such e q u i p m e n t and on t h e modification of simpler tools currently used by f a r m e r s to better adapt t h e m to local conditions and to offer farmers a greater choice of diverse e q u i p m e n t s h o u l d c o n t i n u e . A t t e n t i o n s h o u d be paid to t h e use of m o t o r i z e d e q u i p m e n t w h e r e relevant. The use of f a r m mechanization in areas of intensive labor use should be carefully evaluated for longt e r m possibilities in t h e creation of job opportunities. 5.4 Attention w a s focused on postharvest grain losses, w h i c h represent about 1 0 % o f s o r g h u m production. M a n y centers appear to be carrying out research on postharvest technology. However, there is r o o m for m o r e research, particularly to refine and i m p r o v e traditional m e t h o d s . 5.5 There is a need to effectively recognize quality seed as an important c o m p o n e n t in agricultural d e v e l o p m e n t . The production a n d marketing of seeds w i t h quality control has m a n y aspects involving b o t h private and g o v e r n m e n t contributions. A s t h e c o m mercial use of F 1 hybrids b e c o m e s possible, it is e x t r e m e l y important that t h e relevant authority in a country takes t h e t i m e to s t u d y the seed industry in t h o s e countries w h e r e it is established in order to obtain data on it as a guide in developing their o w n s y s t e m . Relegating the production and marketing of seed to a d e p a r t m e n t of agriculture or an extension service will a l m o s t certainly result in failure to have adequate quantities of quality s e e d in t h e right place at t h e right t i m e for t h e farmer. 5.6 Interest is increasing in t h e g r o w i n g of s o r g h u m in n e w areas: for example, in areas marginal for maize; s o r g h u m follow- 731
ing rice; s o r g h u m on l o w - p H soils w h e r e a l u m i n u m toxicity is a p r o b l e m ; and t h e possibilities of ratooning, particularly in areas w i t h bimodal rainfall. S o r g h u m in t h e s e situations can contribute usefully to increased f o o d production, and such d e v e l o p m e n t should b e e n c o u r a g e d . 5.7 Beside concern for i m p r o v i n g p r o d u c t i o n practices on f a r m e r ' s fields, t h e r e is a recognized n e e d to d e v e l o p a better understanding of and t h e capability for developing and managing e x p e r i m e n t stations. It is r e c o m m e n d e d that educational and training institutions be e n c o u r a g e d to take a m o r e active interest in this area. 6. Food Quality and Utilization 6.1 It is imperative that g o v e r n m e n t s in developing SAT countries i m p l e m e n t a plan for t h e production of locally-adapted f o o d crops to be increased so that importation of f o o d grains w o u l d not b e n e e d e d . A t p r e s e n t there are countries in t h e s o r g h u m - g r o w i n g areas of t h e SAT that have to i m p o r t large quantities of other f o o d grains annually in order to f e e d t h e population in rapidly g r o w i n g urban areas and in rural areas struck by d r o u g h t a n d hunger. Special attention should be given to pricing policies regarding locally-produced and i m p o r t e d cereals so that t h e r e is an incentive for t h e f a r m e r to p r o d u c e s o r g h u m as a c a s h crop. 6.2 It is f u n d a m e n t a l to d o c u m e n t s o r g h u m f o o d preparation practices, including decortication, milling, and c o o k i n g in areas w h e r e s o r g h u m is traditionally eaten. It has recently been s h o w n that several of t h e s e techniq u e s i m p r o v e not only t h e acceptability but also t h e digestibility and nutritional quality of s o r g h u m grain. Laboratory evaluation m e t h o d s o f t h e m a i n s o r g h u m f o o d s should be standardized and financial support be given t o laboratories w o r k i n g w i t h t h e f o l l o w i n g f o o d s y s t e m s : td (thick porridge), to be located in W e s t Africa; kisra a n d injera ( f e r m e n t e d breads), to be located in Central A m e r i c a ; a n d rice-like products a n d noodles. T h e s e laboratories should be provided so that t h e y can w o r k efficiently as regional service c e n t e r s for b r e e d i n g p r o g r a m s . A d e q u a t e support should b e g i v e n for studies o n t h e f u n d a m e n t a l f o o d technology properties of s o r g h u m , involving milling a n d cooking, and their relation to s e e d quality. 6.3 D o c u m e n t a t i o n of t h e present s o r g h u m food-eating habits is required in relation to t h e crop's nutritional status. Studies in traditional sorghum-eating areas to d o c u m e n t t h e c o m p o s i t i o n o f t h e integrated f o o d in relation to nutritional status should give t h e basis for further studies w i t h experimental animals and h u m a n s so that w e can better understand h o w s o r g h u m i s best utilized as a f o o d . 6.4 D e v e l o p m e n t of t h e nutritional quality of s o r g h u m is essential. Studies on t h e sorg h u m t a n n i n s and p o l y p h e n o l s , w h i c h m i g h t be agronomically desirable but w h i c h are detrimental to digestion and protein utilization, m u s t be intensified. Their chemical identification, physiological role, and m e t h o d s for their removal by extraction, alkaline t r e a t m e n t , and decortication m u s t be considered. Protein quality i m p r o v e m e n t in s o r g h u m grain should continue as a research objective using all available g e r m - plasm, w i t h special e m p h a s i s on yield stability and food-grain quality. Studies on s o r g h u m protein and energy availability w i t h in vitro and in vivo m e t h o d s should be intensified w i t h special e m p h a s i s on its relation t o t h e structure and chemical c o m position of t h e s e e d , and on its relation to h u m a n nutrition. 6.5 N e w d e v e l o p m e n t s in s o r g h u m f o o d processing are required. To relieve t h e hard w o r k of hand-decortication in rural areas, it is essential that suitable village-scale decortication a n d milling t e c h n i q u e s be dev e l o p e d and efficiently introduced in areas w h e r e s o r g h u m is decorticated. If s o r g h u m i s going t o c o m p e t e w i t h maize and w h e a t in t h e urban areas, t h e r e is a n e e d for efficient industrial mills that can produce a w h i t e f l o u r o f t h e available s o r g h u m varieties w i t h a milling yield of not less than 8 0 % . Convenient, attractive, and nutritious f o o d s f r o m s o r g h u m w i t h a n i m p r o v e d shelf-life m u s t be urgently d e v e l o p e d and m a r k e t e d . 6.6 T h e d e v e l o p m e n t of t h e industrial uses of s o r g h u m — f o r e x a m p l e , m a l t , b r e w e r s 732
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SORGHUM IN THE EIGHTIES Volume 2 In
Page 5 and 6:
Sorghum in the Eighties Proceedings
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C o n t e n t s Volume 1 F o r e w
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Breeding for Pest Resistance in Sor
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Foreword In October 1971 in Hyderab
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Cropping Systems with Sorghum R. W.
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than sole sorghum. If a row arrange
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the staple cereal. Baker (1979b) ha
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may often be greater under low fert
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Ratoon Systems The importance of ra
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the associated crop can all be defi
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MANDAL, R. C, VIDYABHUSHANAM, R. V.
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Crop Management M. D. Clegg* The ge
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systems. Maize has generally been g
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the next crop. A similar harvesting
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UNGER, P. W., and STEWART, B. A. 19
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programs to evolve closed pedigree
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ally one would go back to breeder's
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egion after a careful study of fact
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The Mechanization of Millet and Sor
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was soon used with a pair of bulloc
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should be understood that workers f
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• The under-utilization of certai
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season makes these animals incapabl
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we will assist in over-equipping th
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contain more clay and considerable
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uncertain moisture are the rule in
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a. Transfer of existing local varie
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JHA. D. 1980. Fertilizer use and it
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proved postharvest grain systems ar
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most developing countries, farmers
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The first concern of research and d
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to be investigated further to devis
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Session 6 Production Technology L R
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seed production by autonomous indep
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educed because of shading compared
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Willey Millet/groundnut Intercroppi
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Sorghum Dry Milling R. D. Reichert*
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machines, abrasive elements are mou
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Hopper Dehuller Motor Rubber cone E
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T o c y c l o n e Bran FAN G r a i
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Hopper Head cover Metal screen Meta
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Somdiaa Mill: Bonfora, Upper Volta
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Figure 11. Photograph of the modifi
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JONES, R. W., and BECKWITH, A. C. 1
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Industrial Milling of Sorghum for t
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Plate 1 :a. The sorghum mixture (1)
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A D B C E Figure 2. The United Mill
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EGGUM. B. 0., BACH KNUDSEN, K. E.,
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thickness within a kernel and betwe
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3. Thick porridge —to, tuwo. ugal
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Table 2. lnjera quality parameters
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Table 5. Sankati quality characteri
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Table 7. Overall acceptability of t
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swelling power and starch solubilit
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C r o s s i n g b l o c k p a r e n
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AID/DSAN/XII/6-0149 from the Agency
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ROONEY, L. W.. and KIRLEIS, A. 1979
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Table 1. Percent crude protein, 96
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proved protein quality and total gr
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distilled water for 3 hr. The M 1 p
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4 0 Low y i e l d c l a s s (22) M
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Table 7. Comparison of results from
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Table 10. Effect of fermentation an
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fermented Sudanese kisra and abrey
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Sorghum as an Energy Source R. E. S
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Table 1. Source Corn Grains, total
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S w e e t s o r g h u m s y r u p v
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October and November (Fig 1) In thi
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Table 4. Comparison of juice qualit
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(80)20 BR 500 (Rio) Brix (% juice)
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Table 6. Agricultural and Industria
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Sweet sorghum Stalks (75%) Leaves (
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Development of Basic Studies Seedli
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Agricultural Experiment Station, Te
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• It converts sorghum as a conven
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Session 7 Food Quality and Utilizat
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Session 8 Socioeconomic Considerati
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1. Climatological and physical cond
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why a substantial percentage of far
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An example of the possible problem
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Although those would appear to enco
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Changes from Farm-level Food Self-s
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appear to be merit in strengthening
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TIFFEN. M. 1976. The enterprising p
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egional sense are well known. It is
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to commercial sale. ONCAO sold to p
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interpretations can be given to the
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esearch can concentrate on the most
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Sorghum Marketing in India M. von O
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Table 2. Area, production, and yiel
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Table 4. Production and percentage
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Seasonal Price Variation of S o r g
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Name o f s t a t e P r o d u c t i
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Index 350 340 330 320 3 1 0 3 0 0 2
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Figure 6. Average sorghum prices in
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Table 8. Regression coefficients (t
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Some Important Socioeconomic Issues
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areas in t h e s e zones can be ret
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urgently to tackle t h e p r o b l
Page 218 and 219: T a b l e 5 . P r o j e c t e d a r
Page 220 and 221: eports of t h e N C A (1972; 1976c)
Page 222 and 223: T a b l e 7 . P h y s i c a l a n d
Page 224: t i m e l y supply of quality chemi
Page 227 and 228: Model I: Diffusion Model I I : Feed
Page 229 and 230: International ICRISAT More develope
Page 231 and 232: find that their linkage w i t h t h
Page 233 and 234: A s w e look t o t h e eighties, w
Page 236 and 237: Session 8 Socioeconomic Considerati
Page 238 and 239: countries, w h e r e p r o d u c t
Page 240 and 241: 26 24 Karnataka 22 2 0 Maharashtra
Page 242 and 243: to not result in vastly different c
Page 244 and 245: c o s t s represent 2 9 % of its na
Page 246 and 247: T a b l e 7 . S t a t e i n t e r v
Page 248 and 249: Sorghum Breeding Strategies In Indi
Page 250 and 251: areas of t h e semi-arid tropics w
Page 252: VON OPPEN, M., and RAO, P. P. 1982.
Page 255 and 256: farmers. I am not sure that this ge
Page 257 and 258: t r u e in s o m e areas, but I can
Page 260 and 261: Session 8 Socioeconomic Considerati
Page 262: Session 9 Plenary Session Chairman:
Page 265 and 266: 2.1.4 N e e d for i m p r o v e d i
Page 267: taxa retain variation that w a s lo
Page 272 and 273: Valedictory Speech A. H. Bunting* M
Page 274 and 275: in agriculture m a y be m a d e . "
Page 276: Appendix 1 Short Communications
Page 279 and 280: Results indicated that stover yield
Page 281 and 282: grain was assessed for grain mold b
Page 283 and 284: Mutational Studies in Sorghum C. S.
Page 285 and 286: The Contribution of IRAT to the Dev
Page 288 and 289: Poster Session The following papers
Page 290 and 291: The Starch for Apospory in Sorghum
Page 292 and 293: A Grain Yield Development in a Hybr
Page 294: Nitrogen-fixing Bacteria Associated
Page 298 and 299: Presentation of Award J. Roy Q u i
Page 300 and 301: Lecture After Presentation of Award
Page 302 and 303: prepared by Dr. M o r g a n , have
Page 304: i n g s of t h e International S h
Page 307 and 308: P a r t i c i p a n t s , I n t e r
Page 309 and 310: India S. S. Adkoli Plant Pathology
Page 311 and 312: B. B. Reddy Plant Breeding IARI Reg
Page 313 and 314: O. Sidiba Institut du Sahel B.P. 15
Page 315 and 316: Siwaporn Siwawej Food Science and T
Page 317 and 318: W. H. M. Morris Agricultural Econom
Page 319 and 320:
P E A R L MIILLET T R A I N I N G D
Page 322:
I C R I S A T International Crops R
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