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a. Transfer of existing local varieties and techniques either within or between zones in the West African SAT. For this purpose the collection of local sorghums should be tested at several planting dates and at several sites which cover the various ecological zones. This extensive testing is required to identify specific adaptation, pest and disease resistance, and yield stability under late planting—characteristics which could be useful in a future crossing program. b. Breeding for resistances to yield-reducing factors such as diseases (sooty stripe, He/- minthosporium blight, grain mold, charcoal rot), insect pests (shoot fly. midge, aphids). and Striga, to improve yield stability of local varieties. This strategy basically aims for a step-by-step approach starting from a lowinput agriculture, on low fertility soils (being the common situation for most sorghum fields). c. Breeding hybrids and pure-line varieties for high yields under high input and high management while screening advanced lines for yields higher than locals even under low input and traditional management. This strategy is mainly based on the introduction of exotics and screening the progeny from exotic x local cultivars. These crosses have received the most attention in the past few decades, but have rarely been tested under low management conditions and have as yet made little impact in West African farmers' fields. d. Breeding for agronomic characteristics to better fit improved varieties into existing systems. Breeding goals may include: —varieties with maturity cycles ranging from very early photoperiod-insensitive (100 days) to very late photoperiodsensitive materials (150 days); —greater tillering in order to allow for a lower plant population or for compensation of plants lost in early droughts; and —greater compatibility with intercrops, particularly cowpea, by changing plant structure (for instance plants with fewer and narrower leaves). AGRONOMY. For many situations in West Africa various agronomic constraints appear to be more serious than genetic limitations of local varieties and will need more emphasis in the future if the merits of improved varieties are to be fully exploited. Since commercial inputs are expensive and often unavailable to most farmers, the major agronomic strategy of ICRISAT in Upper Volta and Mali has been to exploit to a maximum the environmental factors (soil and rainfall) and biological factors (cropping systems, rotations, and plant types). Results of these efforts have been presented in several papers (Stoop et al. 1980; Stoop and van Staveren 1981). Two key agronomic problems are common to many parts of West Africa, and need special attention: maintenance of soil fertility, and erosion control. The latter, especially, is connected with overextended farms and the poor use of animal equipment (repeated plowing and cropping of natural drains). Phase 3: Preextension On-farm Studies In many tropical countries there is a rather strict separation between research and extension. As a result many scientists are not actively concerned with the adoption of their improved varieties and technologies by farmers, and thus remain unaware not only of farmers' constraints but also of the possible shortcomings of their proposed improvements. Likewise, the reasons for the shortfall between yields realized on-station and those under farmers' conditions are rarely critically analyzed (ICRISAT 1981). In response to this situation many of the International Agricultural Research Centers have started to promote onfarm testing in their training (CIMMYT 1978) and outreach programs. On-farm testing must involve more than just placing a number of plots in farmers' fields to evaluate and demonstrate a new variety or technique. Rather, one can distinguish between "onfarm trials" and "farmers' tests". The former consists of controlled experiments managed by researchers but located on farmers' fields under more representative soil, disease, and pest conditions than on a research station. The latter, "farmers' tests", are not only situated on farmers' land but are also managed by farmers who are free to modify the recommendations. Such modifications may represent points of conflict with other elements in the farmers' operations and, as such, are analyzed as farmer-introduced treatments. Intensive input-output data are collected for the test results as well as for other fields of participating farmers in order to place the test 524
esults in the more comprehensive context of all household farming activities. Farmers' tests provide an insight on a range of questions that concern the practical utility of new varieties and technologies, as follows. —What is the performance of a new technology under a range of farmers' environmental and management conditions? —What factors operate under farmers' conditions that are not seen in the research station? —Are there conflicts in the quality, level, or timing of resource use with farmers' capacity? —What are the financial and economic returns compared with alternate activities? —Is the technology consistent with farmers' consumption goals? —What are the consequences of adoptions? It is emphasized that the ultimate purpose of such farmers' tests should be to feed back into the technical research phase a better understanding of the merits and limitations of the technologies under development. In this sense, farmers' tests should not be viewed simply as final preextension screening but as an integral part of the technology development process itself. Likewise, farmers' tests may not always be an essential requirement for extension as long as satisfactory results of on-farm trials are available. The farmers' testing phase described above was introduced in the ICRISAT Upper Volta program in 1980 with cooperation between sorghum improvement, economics, and agronomy programs. The white sorghum variety E - 3 5 - 1 was tested in two villages near Ouagadougou against local varieties. Results of these tests helped identify certain limitations of this variety under farmers' management and led to modifications in research-station screening and selection methods. The tests also helped identify conditions in which the improved variety and recommended practices were superior (Matlon 1981). An expanded program of farmers' tests located in several agro-climatic zones is being implemented by ICRISAT/Upper Volta during the 1980s. These tests are being designed as a follow-up to village baseline studies already under way. This program offers an opportunity for collaboration between several disciplines at the farm level to help define research objectives, thereby reducing the time necessary to arrive at improved technologies truly adapted to the needs of the West African farmer. Acknowledgments We are indebted to the Government of Upper Volta for its encouragement and cooperation in our efforts. Also we wish to express our thanks to the other members of the ICRISAT team in Upper Volta for discussions and critical comments. The Royal Tropical Institute in Amsterdam is acknowledged for its contribution to the ICRISAT Program by making available one of its staff members (W. A. Stoop), and in assisting with various soil analyses. References BIGGS, S. 1980. Informal R&D. Ceres 1 3 : 2 3 - 2 6 . BISWAS, T. D.. NARAYANA, M. R., and VASUDEVA RAO, A. E. 1966. Characteristics of catenary soils on granitegneiss parent rock in the Kurnool District of Andhra Pradesh. Journal of the Indian Society of Soil Science 14: 183-195. BRUCE, K., BYERLEE. D., and EDMEADES, G. E. 1980. Maize in the Mampong-Sekodumasi area of Ghana. Results of an exploratory survey. Londres, Mexico: CIMMYT Economics Program. BYERLEE. D., et al. 1980. Planning technologies appropriate to farmers: concepts and procedures. Londres. Mexico: CIMMYT. CHANTEREAU, J., and MOUSSA, A. 1977. L'IRAT et I'amelioration du sorgho. Principaux r6sultats et orientation sur sorgho au Niger. Agronomie Tropicale 32: 299-303. CIMMYT. 1978. CIMMYT Training. CIMMYT Today no. 9. Londres. Mexico: CIMMYT. FAO/UNESCO. 1974. Soil map of the world at 1 : 5 000 000. Vol. I, Legend. Vol. VI. Africa. Vol. VII, South Asia. Paris. France. UNESCO HILOEBRAND. P. 1979. Incorporating the social sciences into agricultural research: the formation of a national farm systems research institute. Report of a five-year tour of duty. Guatemala: ICTA; and New York: Rockefeller Foundation. ICRISAT. 1980. Upper Volta Annual Report. Ouagadougou. Upper Volta: ICRISAT/PNUD. ICRISAT. 1981. Yield gap analysis. Report of the AICRPDA-ICRISAT Working Group Meeting, February 1980. Patancheru. A.P., India: ICRISAT. 525
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SORGHUM IN THE EIGHTIES Volume 2 In
Page 5 and 6:
Sorghum in the Eighties Proceedings
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C o n t e n t s Volume 1 F o r e w
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Breeding for Pest Resistance in Sor
Page 11: Foreword In October 1971 in Hyderab
Page 15 and 16: Cropping Systems with Sorghum R. W.
Page 17 and 18: than sole sorghum. If a row arrange
Page 19 and 20: the staple cereal. Baker (1979b) ha
Page 21 and 22: may often be greater under low fert
Page 23 and 24: Ratoon Systems The importance of ra
Page 25 and 26: the associated crop can all be defi
Page 27 and 28: MANDAL, R. C, VIDYABHUSHANAM, R. V.
Page 29 and 30: Crop Management M. D. Clegg* The ge
Page 31 and 32: systems. Maize has generally been g
Page 33 and 34: the next crop. A similar harvesting
Page 35: UNGER, P. W., and STEWART, B. A. 19
Page 38 and 39: programs to evolve closed pedigree
Page 40 and 41: ally one would go back to breeder's
Page 42 and 43: egion after a careful study of fact
Page 45 and 46: The Mechanization of Millet and Sor
Page 47 and 48: was soon used with a pair of bulloc
Page 49 and 50: should be understood that workers f
Page 51 and 52: • The under-utilization of certai
Page 53 and 54: season makes these animals incapabl
Page 55: we will assist in over-equipping th
Page 58 and 59: contain more clay and considerable
Page 60 and 61: uncertain moisture are the rule in
Page 64 and 65: JHA. D. 1980. Fertilizer use and it
Page 66 and 67: proved postharvest grain systems ar
Page 68 and 69: most developing countries, farmers
Page 70 and 71: The first concern of research and d
Page 72 and 73: to be investigated further to devis
Page 75 and 76: Session 6 Production Technology L R
Page 77: seed production by autonomous indep
Page 80 and 81: educed because of shading compared
Page 82 and 83: Willey Millet/groundnut Intercroppi
Page 85 and 86: Sorghum Dry Milling R. D. Reichert*
Page 87 and 88: machines, abrasive elements are mou
Page 89 and 90: Hopper Dehuller Motor Rubber cone E
Page 91 and 92: T o c y c l o n e Bran FAN G r a i
Page 93 and 94: Hopper Head cover Metal screen Meta
Page 95 and 96: Somdiaa Mill: Bonfora, Upper Volta
Page 97 and 98: Figure 11. Photograph of the modifi
Page 99 and 100: JONES, R. W., and BECKWITH, A. C. 1
Page 102 and 103: Industrial Milling of Sorghum for t
Page 104: Plate 1 :a. The sorghum mixture (1)
Page 107 and 108: A D B C E Figure 2. The United Mill
Page 109 and 110: EGGUM. B. 0., BACH KNUDSEN, K. E.,
Page 111 and 112: thickness within a kernel and betwe
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3. Thick porridge —to, tuwo. ugal
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Table 2. lnjera quality parameters
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Table 5. Sankati quality characteri
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Table 7. Overall acceptability of t
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swelling power and starch solubilit
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C r o s s i n g b l o c k p a r e n
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AID/DSAN/XII/6-0149 from the Agency
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ROONEY, L. W.. and KIRLEIS, A. 1979
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Table 1. Percent crude protein, 96
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proved protein quality and total gr
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distilled water for 3 hr. The M 1 p
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4 0 Low y i e l d c l a s s (22) M
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Table 7. Comparison of results from
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Table 10. Effect of fermentation an
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fermented Sudanese kisra and abrey
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Sorghum as an Energy Source R. E. S
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Table 1. Source Corn Grains, total
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S w e e t s o r g h u m s y r u p v
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October and November (Fig 1) In thi
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Table 4. Comparison of juice qualit
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(80)20 BR 500 (Rio) Brix (% juice)
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Table 6. Agricultural and Industria
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Sweet sorghum Stalks (75%) Leaves (
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Development of Basic Studies Seedli
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Agricultural Experiment Station, Te
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• It converts sorghum as a conven
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Session 7 Food Quality and Utilizat
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Session 8 Socioeconomic Considerati
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1. Climatological and physical cond
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why a substantial percentage of far
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An example of the possible problem
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Although those would appear to enco
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Changes from Farm-level Food Self-s
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appear to be merit in strengthening
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TIFFEN. M. 1976. The enterprising p
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egional sense are well known. It is
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to commercial sale. ONCAO sold to p
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interpretations can be given to the
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esearch can concentrate on the most
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Sorghum Marketing in India M. von O
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Table 2. Area, production, and yiel
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Table 4. Production and percentage
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Seasonal Price Variation of S o r g
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Name o f s t a t e P r o d u c t i
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Index 350 340 330 320 3 1 0 3 0 0 2
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Figure 6. Average sorghum prices in
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Table 8. Regression coefficients (t
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Some Important Socioeconomic Issues
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areas in t h e s e zones can be ret
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urgently to tackle t h e p r o b l
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T a b l e 5 . P r o j e c t e d a r
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eports of t h e N C A (1972; 1976c)
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T a b l e 7 . P h y s i c a l a n d
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t i m e l y supply of quality chemi
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Model I: Diffusion Model I I : Feed
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International ICRISAT More develope
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find that their linkage w i t h t h
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A s w e look t o t h e eighties, w
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countries, w h e r e p r o d u c t
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26 24 Karnataka 22 2 0 Maharashtra
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to not result in vastly different c
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c o s t s represent 2 9 % of its na
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T a b l e 7 . S t a t e i n t e r v
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Sorghum Breeding Strategies In Indi
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areas of t h e semi-arid tropics w
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VON OPPEN, M., and RAO, P. P. 1982.
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farmers. I am not sure that this ge
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t r u e in s o m e areas, but I can
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Session 9 Plenary Session Chairman:
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2.1.4 N e e d for i m p r o v e d i
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taxa retain variation that w a s lo
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ing rice; s o r g h u m on l o w -
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Valedictory Speech A. H. Bunting* M
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in agriculture m a y be m a d e . "
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Appendix 1 Short Communications
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Results indicated that stover yield
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grain was assessed for grain mold b
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Mutational Studies in Sorghum C. S.
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The Contribution of IRAT to the Dev
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Poster Session The following papers
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The Starch for Apospory in Sorghum
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A Grain Yield Development in a Hybr
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Nitrogen-fixing Bacteria Associated
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Presentation of Award J. Roy Q u i
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Lecture After Presentation of Award
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prepared by Dr. M o r g a n , have
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i n g s of t h e International S h
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P a r t i c i p a n t s , I n t e r
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India S. S. Adkoli Plant Pathology
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B. B. Reddy Plant Breeding IARI Reg
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O. Sidiba Institut du Sahel B.P. 15
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Siwaporn Siwawej Food Science and T
Page 317 and 318:
W. H. M. Morris Agricultural Econom
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P E A R L MIILLET T R A I N I N G D
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I C R I S A T International Crops R
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