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Resource Manual on IPPM in Vegetable World Education Philippines, Inc. Parasitoids of Insect Pests Parasitoids are a very important component of the natural enemy complex of insect pests and have been the most common type of natural enemy introduced for biological control of insects. Members of 43 families of the order Hymenoptera are parasitoids. Twelve families of Diptera contain some species whose larvae are parasitoids of arthropods and snails. Of these, only the Tachinidae have been of major significance in biological control as introduced natural enemies. So far, parasitoids of 26 families have been used in biological control. The most frequently used groups in the Hymenoptera are Braconidae, Ichneumonidae, Eulophidae, Pteromalidae, Encrytidae and Aphelinidae. Some parasitoids are also found in the insect order Strepsiptera, Lepidoptera and Coleoptera, although parasitism is not typical of the Lepidoptera and Coleoptera. Pathogens Pathogens Attacking Arthropods More than 1500 species of pathogens are known to attack arthropods. These include bacteria, viruses, fungi, protozoa and nematodes. Some pathogens have been formulated as micro-biological insecticides. Others have been genetically engineered but none have been commercialized. Bacteria Among the various pathogen groups, bacteria have been the group most successfully brought into commercial use. Three species of spore-forming bacteria in the genus Bacillus are currently used for the control of several groups of pests, the most widely used of which is Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt.). About 30 subspecies of Bacillus thuringiensis and more than 700 strains have been identified. Bt. products are available for control of lepidoptera, coleoptera and diptera. Viruses At least 16 families of viruses have been found to be pathogens of insects. Members of Baculoviridae frequently cause lethal infections and are only known to cause disease in insects. Few viruses have been marketed as commercial products because their production costs are high and they have narrow host specificity. Fungi More than 400 species of entomopathogenic fungi have been recognized. These fungi are found under five subdivisions: Mastigomycotina, Zygomycotina, Ascomycotina, Basidiomycotina and Deuteromycotina. Fungal epidemics occur periodically and can cause high levels of mortality in affected arthropod populations. Successful development of fungal pesticides has been limited because of narrow host range, and high humidity 148
Resource Manual on IPPM in Vegetable World Education Philippines, Inc. requirements for germination or sporulation, but have great potential for use in humid climates or moist environments such as soil. Protozoa Protozoa infecting insects include micro-sporidians and the eugergarines. Some have been considered for use as microbial insecticides. Species of Nosema are potential biocontrol agents for grasshoppers. Nematodes Nematodes that have shown potential for the control of agricultural pests are members of the families Steinernematidae and Heterorhabditidae, which are mutualistically associated with bacteria that kill the nematodes host. Nematodes in some other families also kill their host insect through their growth, as do parasitoids. These include mermithidae, phaenopsitylenchidae, iotonchiidae, sphaerulariidae and tetradonematidae. Biological Control Approaches Large numbers of biological control agents are active in the field and are naturally performing biological control functions. This phenomenon is known as naturally occurring biological control or natural biological control. Natural biological control is the most important component of pest management in crop fields. In its absence, crop production would be extremely difficult. Natural biological control is often limited by factors such as low plant diversity and its consequences for natural enemy populations - pesticide use or highly seasonal planting of field crops. As pests enter crops early in the season, and start to grow rapidly on abundant food, it is difficult for natural enemies to keep up with them. Therefore, in order to create favorable situations for natural enemies, interventions are often necessary. There are three major interventions: 1. conservation 2. augmentation and 3. introduction or classical biological control II. Cultural Control of Insect Pests Definition of Cultural Control Cultural control is the modification of production practices to make the environment less favorable for pest invasion, reproduction, survival and dispersal. Its aim is to achieve reductions in pest numbers. Most of the traditional agronomic practices have a dual purpose of crop production and pest suppression. Rice establishment through transplanting of seedlings is a good 149
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ACKNOWLEDGM ENT World Education (IN
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1. Leaves 48 2. Flower 49 3. Fruit
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Sources 203 Part XII: Farm Record K
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