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NIRVANA IN THE THERAVf DA BUDDHIST TRADITION getting born again. Yet it does not know the escape from this suffering and from decay and death. When indeed will the escape from them be known? I then thought, oh monks, ‘From what that exists do decay and death come to be, from which cause is there old age and death?’ Then oh monks I had a realisation of understanding through thinking according to the cause (yoniso manasikAra): ‘When birth exists, decay and death come to be, with birth as condition, there is decay and death’. 15 Here the problem of death turned out to be the crucial issue that the Buddha before enlightenment sought to overcome. Although it was not mentioned in this sutta, the Buddha before enlightenment could ask himself ‘What is death?’ as against ‘What is life?’ in accordance with the ordinary way of thinking. The Buddha, according to Gombrich in his book How Buddhism Began, ‘was not an essentialist, and in contrast to Brahmins was interested in how things worked rather than in what they were’. 16 From the modern terminology, these two ways of looking at things seem to correspond to two types of methodology suggested by Karl Popper in his book The Open Society and Its Enemies: methodological essentialism and methodological nominalism. Karl Popper explained the first, methodological essentialism, as to aim at finding out what a thing really is and at defining its true nature, by asking, for example, what movement is or what an atom is. The second, methodological nominalism, is to aim at describing how a thing behaves in various circumstances, by asking, for instance, how a planet moves or under what conditions an atom radiates light. 17 His point, according to Gombrich, is that ‘knowledge and understanding do not advance through asking for definitions of what things are, but through asking why they occur and how they work’. 18 The content of yoniso manasikAra could resemble modern scientific method. The question and answer given under yoniso manasikAra focused clearly on how or why things like old age and death occur. Late in this text, this method was regarded as a whole new one, ‘not being heard of before’ (pubbe ananusamuppAda), 19 and as a means through which enlightenment was possible. We can see another aspect of this new way of questioning and answering in the Phaggunasutta in the SaNyuttanikAya. Here the Buddha actually took some questions from a monk, Moliya Phagguna, as unfit questions and suggested fit questions and answers based on his new way of thinking, yoniso manasikAra. He asked the Buddha, when the doctrine of the four foods (AhAra) was taught, ‘Then, blessed one, who eats the consciousness-food?’ 20 The four foods (AhAra) are made up of physical food, sense-impressions, mental volitions and consciousness, and the last food is interpreted by Warder as ‘experience through our sentient body’. 21 This question thus means simply ‘Who is conscious?’ 22 Here is the answer from the blessed one: 53
THE DOCTRINAL DEVELOPMENT OF NIRVANA The Buddha said this was not a fit question. I am not saying someone eats. If I were saying so, the question would be a fit one. But I am not saying so. Although I am not saying so, however, if you asked me ‘Then the Blessed one, what has consciousness as food?’, this would be a fit question. And the fit answer to it is that the consciousness food is the cause of future becoming and of rebirth. When that has come about there are the six senses. With the six senses as condition there is sense-contact. 23 The Buddha further corrected Moliya Phagguna’s questions such as ‘Who contacts?’ and ‘Who feels?’ to ‘From which cause is there sense-contact?’ and ‘From which cause is there feeling?’ From the Buddhist methodology, yoniso manasikAra, questions raised by Moliya Phagguna were unacceptable as they had already assumed an agent or subject, such as a soul (Atman), behind our cognitive activities. While the Buddha explained our mental phenomena through the causal relationship between cognitive units, questions from Moliya Phagguna expect answers explaining our mental phenomena through the hierarchical relationship of the subject within, such as a soul (Atman), and cognitive activities outside, such as sense and feeling. If mental phenomena can be explained through the causal relationship between dharmas, there is no need to establish such a hierarchical subject–object relationship. Soul, according to Buddhism, is known neither by direct perception (pratyakLa), as are the objects of the five sense consciousnesses and the object of mental consciousness, nor by inference (anumAna), as are the five faculties (indriya). 24 Since our cognitive activities can be explained through the causal relationship between dharmas that can be known either by direct perception or by inference, there is no need to accept the existence of a soul, which is not known and is not part of this causal relationship between phenomena. In this new way of thinking, yoniso manasikAra, there is no place for something that is outside the range of this causal relationship. In both suttas mentioned above, the answer given by the Buddha leads us to the formulae of dependent origination (paMiccasamuppAda) consisting of ten or twelve dhammas. This could mislead us to assume that this way of thinking, yoniso manasikAra, can be applied only to the relationship between dhammas within the formulae of dependent origination. I hold that the scope of yoniso manasikAra is a lot wider. We can see a kind of general rule beyond the chain of ten or twelve formulae within the early canon. It is ‘When there is A, there is B; from the arising of A, B arises’ (imasmiN sati idaN hoti imass’uppAdA idaN uppajjati). According to the very first part of the UdAna, 25 this general rule was built up on the basis of the Buddha’s enlightened experience. That is to say, yoniso manasikAra can be applied not only to the twelve dharmas within the formulae, but also to all causally related phenomena. 54
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METAPHOR AND LITERALISM IN BUDDHISM
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TEACHING BUDDHISM IN THE WEST Edite
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METAPHOR AND LITERALISM IN BUDDHISM
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FOR DONGJE MY ABSOLUTELY ADORABLE D
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CONTENTS List of figures and tables
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PREFACE I am glad to be able to tha
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ABBREVIATIONS The abbreviations for
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ABBREVIATIONS RV Rgveda. SA SaNyukt
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INTRODUCTION INTRODUCTION In the Ab
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Page 22 and 23: INTRODUCTION two nirvana theory in
Page 24 and 25: NIRVANA AND ITS REFERENCE Part 1 TH
Page 26 and 27: NIRVANA AND ITS REFERENCE 1 NIRVANA
Page 28 and 29: NIRVANA AND ITS REFERENCE early Bud
Page 30 and 31: NIRVANA AND ITS REFERENCE original
Page 32 and 33: THE TWO NIRVANA THEORY IN THE EARLY
Page 54 and 55: DEVELOPMENTS OF THE TWO NIRVANA THE
Page 68 and 69: NIRVANA IN THE THERAVf DA BUDDHIST
Page 94 and 95: NIRVANA IN NORTHERN BUDDHIST SCHOOL
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NIRVANA IN NORTHERN BUDDHIST SCHOOL
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Table 5.4 Summary of the doctrinal
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CONCLUSION The term anAgAmin was of
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CONCLUSION passion, hatred and delu
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CONCLUSION The Sautrantikas probabl
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SELECTED SOURCES FOR THE NIRVANA CO
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NOTES Indians; and also because we
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NOTES 13 Huzita (1988: 8). 14 La Va
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NOTES 70 See Dutt (1960: 252-71), L
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NOTES 146 Akanuma (1929: 126). 147
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NOTES 39 yaP sAsravair dharmair vis
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NOTES 5 Harvey (1990: 66-7). 6 DN I
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NOTES 65 Tr. Norman (1992: 120): ac
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NOTES 132 Bareau (1955: 285). 133 B
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NOTES 15 Life faculty is one of the
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NOTES 77 Akb-h pp. 67-8. 78 Accordi
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NOTES 149 SA (TD2 57c8), SN IV 109.
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NOTES 6 SN IV 251-2. 7 The Chinese
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NOTES (1969: 378-82), which was mad
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BIBLIOGRAPHY BIBLIOGRAPHY PRIMARY S
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BIBLIOGRAPHY SECONDARY SOURCES Adik
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BIBLIOGRAPHY Pasadika, Bhikkhu (198
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faculty see indriya fetters see saN
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