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<strong>Current</strong> <strong>Trends</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Challenges</strong><br />

undocumented migrants in Engl<strong>and</strong>”, Ethnic<br />

<strong>and</strong> Racial Studies, vol. 34, No. 8 (2011), pp.<br />

1286, 1296; <strong>and</strong> Europol, “Facilitated illegal<br />

immigration intelligence bulletin”, Intelligence<br />

Bulletin, No. 1 (February 2008), p. 14.<br />

72<br />

Europol, “Facilitated illegal immigration<br />

intelligence bulletin”, Intelligence Bulletin, No.<br />

1 (January 2011), p. 7.<br />

73<br />

UNODC, Migrant Smuggling in Asia:<br />

Comparative Research on Financial Flows<br />

within Asia <strong>and</strong> Europe (2013) [restricted<br />

circulation], p. 24.<br />

74<br />

E. Ellis, “Chinese organized crime in Latin<br />

America”, Prism, vol. 1 (2013), pp. 65, 68–<br />

69; Europol, “Facilitated illegal immigration<br />

intelligence bulletin”, Intelligence Bulletin,<br />

No. 5 (October 2008), pp. 7–8; UNODC,<br />

Transnational Organized Crime in East Asia <strong>and</strong><br />

the Pacific: A Threat Assessment (2013), p. 29.<br />

75<br />

R. Yamamoto, “Migrants as a crime problem:<br />

the construction of foreign criminality discourse<br />

in contemporary Japan”, International Journal<br />

of Comparative <strong>and</strong> Applied Criminal Justice,<br />

vol. 34, No. (2010), pp. 301, 314.<br />

76<br />

Government of United Kingdom, Response to<br />

questions by UNODC relating to smuggling of<br />

migrants in Asia (2014).<br />

77<br />

ibid.<br />

78<br />

UNODC, Migrant Smuggling in Asia:<br />

Comparative Research on Financial Flows within<br />

Asia <strong>and</strong> Europe (2013) [restricted circulation],<br />

pp. 22, 108. S. Zhang <strong>and</strong> others, “Women’s<br />

participation in Chinese transnational human<br />

smuggling”, Criminology, vol. 45, No. 3 (2007),<br />

pp. 699, 724; Europol, “Facilitated illegal<br />

immigration intelligence bulletin”, Intelligence<br />

Bulletin, No. 1 (January 2011), p. 6.<br />

79<br />

R. Parreñas, Illicit Flirtations: Labor, Migration,<br />

<strong>and</strong> Sex Trafficking in Tokyo (2011), p. 361.<br />

80<br />

J. Song, “‘Smuggled refugees’: the social<br />

construction of North Korean migration”,<br />

International Migration, vol. 51, No. 4 (2013),<br />

pp. 158, 162, 164–165; E. Choi, Gender, Justice<br />

<strong>and</strong> Geopolitics of Undocumented North<br />

Korean migration (2010), p. 151.<br />

81<br />

United Nations, Human Rights Council, Report<br />

of the Detailed Findings of the Commission of<br />

Inquiry on Human Rights in the Democratic<br />

People’s Republic of Korea, (7 February 2014)<br />

A/HRC/25/CRP.1, pp. 107–110, [381]-[392];<br />

E. Chan <strong>and</strong> A. Schloenhardt, ‘North Korean<br />

refugees <strong>and</strong> international refugee law”,<br />

International Journal of Refugee Law, vol. 19<br />

(2007), pp. 215, 221–222.<br />

82<br />

J. Song, “‘Smuggled refugees’: the social<br />

construction of North Korean migration”,<br />

International Migration, vol. 51, No. 4 (2013),<br />

pp. 158, 164.<br />

83<br />

C. Barker, “The people smugglers’ business<br />

model”, Research Paper No. 2, 2012–13 (2013),<br />

p. 31.<br />

84<br />

Europol, “Facilitated illegal immigration<br />

intelligence bulletin”, Intelligence Bulletin, No.<br />

2 (April 2006), p. 6.<br />

85<br />

P. Reuter, Draining Development? Controlling<br />

Flows of Illicit Funds from Developing Countries<br />

(2012), p. 188.<br />

86<br />

UNODC, Transnational Organized Crime in<br />

East Asia <strong>and</strong> the Pacific: A Threat Assessment<br />

(2013), p. 32.<br />

87<br />

S. Zhang <strong>and</strong> others, “Women’s participation<br />

in Chinese transnational human smuggling”,<br />

Criminology, vol. 45, No. 3 (2007), pp. 699, 703.<br />

88<br />

C.Y. Chu, “Human trafficking <strong>and</strong> smuggling in<br />

China”, Journal of Contemporary China, vol. 20,<br />

No. 68 (2011), pp. 39, 45.<br />

89<br />

ibid., pp. 39, 47.<br />

90<br />

United States, National Institute of Justice,<br />

Asian Transnational Organized Crime <strong>and</strong> Its<br />

Impact on the United States’ (2007), pp. 16, 27.<br />

91<br />

Europol, “Facilitated illegal immigration<br />

intelligence bulletin”, Intelligence Bulletin, No.<br />

2 (April 2008), pp. 8–9.<br />

92<br />

Europol, “Facilitated illegal immigration<br />

intelligence bulletin”, Intelligence Bulletin, No.<br />

1 (January 2011), pp. 5–6.<br />

175

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