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These are important energy source for fishes and also contribute to the taste of fishes. Like some of the aminoacids, there are also essential fatty acids, which have to be supplied through the dietary lipid source since thesecan not be synthesized by fish. Polyunsaturated fats are more beneficial for fish. Linolenic (n-3) and Linoleic acids(n-6) are important for both the groups of fish and shrimp. The requirement of fat varies from species to species.Carbohydrates:Carbohydrates are the cheapest source of energy in the feeds. Starch : sugars, cellulose, gums are usually the typesof carbohydrate sources. Fish are known to utilize simple carbohydrates like sugars more effectively than complexstarches, while the shrimp are known to better utilize the complex carbohydrates. Carnivores are not efficientconverters of carbohydrates. Catfish and several species of carps are known to utilize complex carbohydrates andsome carbohydrates are normally not digested and these include fibers. Herbivorous fish are able to digest fiberbecause of the cellulase enzymes present in them. Fish in general are known to be not efficient utilizes ofcarbohydrates. However, this view is changing rapidly with the demonstration of efficient use of carbohydrates incarps and other groups of fishes.Energy:Like all other animals, fish also require energy. However, fish use much energy for protein synthesis than do warmbloodedanimals because they do not need to maintain constant body temperature, need less energy to maintainposition and less energy is used for excretion of ammonia. Optimum energy level is important in both fish andshrimp feeds. This energy required for maintenance of the body is obtained from burning protein, fat orcarbohydrate. The energy thus liberated is used for mechanical work (muscle activity), chemical activity (chemicalprocess taking place in the body); electrical work (nerve activity), osmotic work (maintaining body fluids in anequilibrium). Free energy is that which is left after using it for the maintenance of the biological activity. The energylevel in the feed is calculated using the standard values available for the principal energy source components namely,protein - 5 Kcal/g, carbohydrate- 4 Kcal/g and lipid - 9 Kcal/g. Higher energy in the feed results in the less consumptionof food and thereby resulting in less protein available for growth. Also, addition of excess fat results in theaccumulation of fat in the body and bad odor. When the energy levels in the diet are less, protein is used up tomeet the energy needs and consequently result in the poor growth of fish.With the Increase in knowledge in fish nutrition, lipids and carbohydrates are increasingly used to spare protein forgrowth. In carnivorous fish diet by including fat as energy source at high level, protein is made available forgrowth.Vitamins:Both water soluble as well as fat-soluble vitamins are essential for prawns and fishes, Vitamins are complexorganic compounds required in trace amounts for normal growth, reproduction, health and metabolism. Fat-solublevitamins are recognized to be important in many ways for the animal for breeding, development, disease resistantetc. and Vitamin E has been found to be important for reproduction. Vitamin C has been found to increase diseaseresistance and improve the growth of fishes.Minerals:These are considered to be important both for body function and growth, They are important in providing rigidity andstrength to the bones of fish and the exoskeleton of crustacean, The body fluids are involved, in the osmoticregulation, nervous and endocrine system. Seven major minerals, namely calcium, phosphorous, potassium,chlorine, sodium, magnesium, sulphur, manganese, nickel, cobalt, molybdenum and selenium are needed to be ina balanced diet. Fish and Crustacea absorb minerals from the water through skin and gills, Calcium is rich in99
seawater, but in fresh water its level is low. Since feed ingredients are usually rich in calcium, dietary deficiency isunlikely. On the other hand, phosphorous is low in water and hence diet requires phosphorous supplementation.Nutritional requirement of fishes and shrimps :A number of studies conducted in different laboratories around the world have generated information on the nutritionalrequirement of various components listed above for the cultured fishes and shrimps and these are readily available.However, it should be remembered that most of these results are based on the experiments carried out undercontrolled conditions without the influence of natural food. Hence, while these information could serve as basis for theformulation of diets, it is necessary to understand that the natural food also contribute enormous amount of energyas well as some of the essential elements like vitamins and minerals to the cultured fishes and prawns, Hence, thenutrient requirements of these species under the influence of the natural feed should be understood in order toreduce the feed input cost.Role of natural food in the diet of fish and prawns:In tropical climate, considerable amount of natural food is produced and these natural food items are recognized asequivalent to "mother's milk" in human beings as they are known to contain a number of essential elementsrequired for the fish. The natural food in the system produced through fertilization contains rich source of protein.The average protein, fat and carbohydrate content of the natural feed is reported to be 52.1, 27.3 and 7.7%,respectively, with an average calorific value of 3.9 kcal/g. This level of nutrients is expected to meet most of thenutritional requirements of the fishes. The proximate composition of different types of natural food organisms studiedso far indicate that most of the nutritional needs of the fish could be easily met from the natural food for fishescultured under extensive and semi-intensive systems.Use of different fertilizers, consisting of both organic and inorganic in nature to augment the natural productivity offish is commonly used in tropical aquaculture systems. Inorganic nitrogen fertilizers are easily soluble in water andhence there is no difficulty in regard to application of nitrogenous fertilizers in to the pond, However, the solubility ofinorganic fertilizers is reported to be very low and hence, fertilization application method is likely to have profoundimpact on the success of the fertilization regime used, If granular and powdered phosphatic fertilizers are allowed tocome in contact with the soil, they will be rapidly adsorbed in to the soil particles and become unavailable to theplanktonic algae. Hence, it is always recommended that phosphatic fertilizers should be first dissolved in waterprior to application or they should be filled in perforated sacks and fixed in the pond for slow dissolution anddispersion. In all cases, in order to maintain fertilizer effectively, it is suggested to apply them in smaller quantityinstead of applying them in a large single dose.While chemical fertilizers act directly on the autotrophic food chain, organic fertilizers act through the heterotrophicfood chain with manure serving principally as the substrate for the growth of bacteria and protozoa. C: N ratio of themanure will have influence on the manure quality. Best ratio for the growth of bacterial population is reported to be20:1. In smaller size of the organic manure particles, faster will be the colonization of bacteria and protozoans.However, it should be remembered that addition of organic manures necessitates higher oxygen demand in thewater. For each gram of organic matter decomposed, 1.2 g of oxygen is consumed.Farmyard manures are one of the easily available sources for pond fertilization. Animal excreta represents a nutrientpacked resource containing 72-79% of the nitrogen and 61-87% of the phosphorous originally fed to the animal.The nutrient content of the different organic manures varies depending on the type of feed provided to the animal,age, environment, etc. In tropical countries, different types of manures are commonly available and among thevarious manures, poultry manure has been proved to be the best. The effect of manure will depend on the quantityand frequency of its application. It is reported that 100-200 kg manure on dry weight basis /ha/day could be appliedin to the pond. This equates to 100-200 pigs weighing 100kg each/ha/day, 15-30 cows weighing 500 kg each / ha/ dayor 2000-4000 poultry weighing 2kg /ha/day. It must be remembered that manuring rates are pond and farm specific100
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Training of TrainersProgramme3-7 Au
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Table of Contents1. Preface 42. Sen
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knowledge about the activities carr
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iosphere, in that it is essentially
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Importance in narrowing the supply
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Figure 7: The trend in aquaculture
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aquaculture has been a success thus
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pathogen transfer is generally cons
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• It highlights the importance a
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particular animal are identified, t
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Knowledge at the bottom of the pyra
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farmer innovation process. In this
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• Rapport building• Working str
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shrimp farming is undertaken in the
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Reintjes, C and Hiemstra, W. 1989 F
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• An increase in reliable product
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Principles of AACC are to: 1) Facil
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Maintaining genetic quality of fish
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Where F is the percent increase in
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o G=(0.95) 1/10G =0.994883803Figure
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Aquaculture extension and training
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ResearchExtensionFarmersFlow of inf
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view of outside world than before a
Page 50 and 51: Along with fish sample, the support
Page 52 and 53: Fungal examinationFungal infection
Page 54 and 55: few different pathogen strains. The
Page 56 and 57: Major finfish diseases in Asia and
Page 58 and 59: A great number and diversity of ani
Page 60 and 61: • -oxidase test positive• -resi
Page 62 and 63: ReferencesAustin, B. and D. Austin.
Page 64 and 65: Accessing better markets-improving
Page 66 and 67: Owing to its importance in generati
Page 68 and 69: adopt standards for responsible shr
Page 70: Tokrisna R, Benheam W., 1995. Gain
Page 73 and 74: of the temperature rise that were d
Page 75 and 76: Principles of developing, validatin
Page 77 and 78: such as determinants, exposures and
Page 79 and 80: How to promote adoption of BMPs?Pro
Page 81 and 82: economic sustainability. BMPs need
Page 83 and 84: Once you understand your stakeholde
Page 85 and 86: As conventional approaches such as
Page 87 and 88: Printed publicationsPrinted publica
Page 89 and 90: Set up a blog or website for your w
Page 91 and 92: If you have a website, all you need
Page 93 and 94: ought about increased profits among
Page 95 and 96: • It is a farming system the prod
Page 97 and 98: Annex 1. The area surveyed for obta
Page 99: contribute substantially to maintai
Page 103 and 104: type of ingredients used, since som
Page 105 and 106: This is a new approach used to buil
Page 107 and 108: New, M.B., A. G. J. Tacon and I. Cs
Page 109 and 110: later stages it has become a much m
Page 111 and 112: c. Improved information exchange an
Page 113 and 114: implemented by both societies. Inte
Page 115 and 116: With better informed farmers, the s
Page 117 and 118: According to FAO, it is estimated t
Page 119 and 120: Farmer organization as models for p
Page 121 and 122: NaCSA disseminates BMPs mainly thro
Page 123 and 124: 1. Drain the pond water completely
Page 125 and 126: Seed transportation and Stocking:
Page 127 and 128: 7. Presently 100% of the society po
Page 129 and 130: would help in sustaining shrimp sec
Page 131 and 132: Stress brought about by the capture
Page 133 and 134: Enhance women participation in aqua
Page 135 and 136: women in aquaculture and identify a
Page 137 and 138: major percentage of staff, the need
Page 139 and 140: having more self confidence through
Page 141 and 142: Overall status of men and women in
Page 143 and 144: Compliance to international standar
Page 145 and 146: (ii) to protect human or animal lif
Page 147 and 148: c) FAO/WHO Codex Alimentarius Commi
Page 149 and 150: Annex 1: List of participantsCountr
Page 151 and 152:
Annex 2: AgendaDate Time Presentati
Page 153:
Annex 3: List of resource persons1.
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