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Population based studies using epidemiological principles are used to understand the culture system and species.Different types of approaches can be taken in this direction. In observational studies nature is allowed to take itscourse while the differences or changes in characteristics of the population are studied without intervention fromthe investigator. Observational studies can be descriptive, longitudinal, cross-sectional or case-control. Descriptivestudies describe the distribution and frequency of a outcome (e.g. disease) in a population. The described patternsmay lead to a hypothesis (for example, EUS occurs normally during cooler months of the year). Longitudinalstudies follow study units through time, observe and record the course of natural events, record frequency ofoutcomes (e.g. disease), look for differences (factors) between groups with and without the selected outcome (e.g.disease). Cross-sectional study gives a snapshot in time, prevalence of outcome (e.g. disease) is measured andcompared among those with and without the risk factor of interest (ex: PCR positivity of PL). Case-control studyselects units with the outcome (e.g. disease) of interest as cases and units without the disease as controls,frequencies of suspected risk factors are then measured for the two groups and compared. The most frequentlyused approach is conducting questionnaire based population survey and then using the information to identify riskfactors.i) Outcomes and AssociationsEpidemiological studies define certain outcomes and use them for separating the population into groups forcomparison. Frequently used outcomes in epidemiology are mortality and disease outbreaks. For example, shrimpponds may be divided into successful ponds and failure ponds based on disease outbreaks, yield, weight atharvest, length of production cycle, etc. Using epidemiological and statistical tools, it is possible to identifyvariables (factors) associated with defined outcomes. Variables statistically associated with successful outcomesare regarded as protective factors. Variables statistically associated with failure outcomes are regarded as riskfactors. The risk/protective factors identified based on a population are mere associations with the outcome andshould not be regarded as either cause of the outcome or solution to the outcome.Sampling is a crucial issue in epidemiological studies. The sample should be random and should represent thetarget population. The results obtained from the sample should have to be generalised to the whole population. Inorder to achieve this, the sample size should be such that the results could be generalised with 95% confidence tothe whole population and should have the power to show the statistical differences between groups. Problems ofbias and how to avoid it is of central importance to the validity of all epidemiological studies. Bias occurs whenobservations do not reflect the true situation. This is because of systematic error such as sample selection bias,sampling bias, measurement bias, etc.The aim of data analysis is to identify risk factors for selected outcomes (e.g. disease outbreaks). Risk factor isany variable having statistical association with the outcome of concern. Positive association suggests increasedrisk (risk factor) while negative association suggests decreased risk (protective factor). Such identifiedassociations are only statistical associations and not the same as the cause.Interventions developed to address the risk factors can be called as better management practices (BMPs). Forexample not drying a pond can be a risk factor for poor production. Therefore, drying the pond before stockingseed becomes a better management practice. BMPs can be developed to address series of risk factorsassociated with various stages in culture operation (pond preparation, seed selection, stocking, water qualitymanagement, feed management, disease management, pond bottom monitoring, harvest and post harvesthandling). Once a set of BMPs are developed based on scientific studies, stakeholder consultations and existingscientific knowledge, it is necessary to test the BMPs and validate them. This is normally carried out through farmdemonstration studies. BMPs are constantly evolving and changing and it is necessary to consider approaches tocontinuously evaluate and improve BMPs.77
How to promote adoption of BMPs?Promoting the adoption of BMPs by small scale farmers is not easy and straight forward. Using appropriateextension methodologies to bring about change in the attitude of farmers and encouraging them to change theirculture practices by incorporating BMPs are vital for successful adoption of BMPs.A critical aspect of the introduction of BMPs has been the role of farmer groups, or other organizations, and theeffective linkage between the public sector and such organizations. Provision of science based information tofarmer groups through effective networking and communication is one important key to the success.Implementation of BMPs-ShrimpThe broadest principles for sustainable aquaculture are provided by the Code of Conduct of Responsible Fisheries(CCRF). The Code has been the basis for the development of more specific principles and practices. Amongthese are the “International Principles for Responsible Shrimp Farming” 4 . The ‘Principles’ provide an internationalframework for improving the sustainability of the shrimp farming sector. Better management practices (BMPs) have beendeveloped and used in several countries to put into practice the more general principles of responsible shrimpfarming. Experience has shown that well designed and implemented BMPs can support producers to:• Increase efficiency and productivity by reducing the risk of shrimp health problems• Reduce or mitigate the impacts of farming on the environment• Improve food safety and quality of shrimp farm product; and• Improve the social benefits from shrimp farming and its social acceptability and sustainabilityShrimp BMP projects, in India, Indonesia, Thailand and Vietnam provide good examples of translating theinternational principles into specific BMPs adapted to local farming conditions and ensuring their implementationby relevant stakeholders, with consequent gains in production, quality improvements and market accessibility.They also show evidence of the advantages of small-scale farmers being organized (farmer groups/societies),sharing resources, empowering the stakeholders, helping each other and adopting BMPs. The implementation ofthe BMPs has provided benefits to the farmers, environment and society.India Case StudySince the early 1990s, the Indian shrimp aquaculture sector has been hard hit by viral diseases. To address risingconcerns about the effect of diseases on the sustainability of the sector, the Government of India’s MarineProducts Export Development Authority (MPEDA) with the technical assistance of NACA and the support of theIndian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) and the Australian Center for International Agricultural Research(ACIAR) initiated a programme in 2000 on “Shrimp disease control and coastal management”. The programmestarted in 2001 with a large epidemiological study aimed at identifying the risk factors for key shrimp diseases. Italso undertook to develop and disseminate BMPs to minimize farm-level risk factors for disease outbreaks and toaddress shrimp farming sustainability more broadly. The programme, which is now in its ninth year, wasimplemented in a phased manner. Some of the key stages of the programme included:• A baseline study of the major diseases affecting the shrimp aquaculture operations (2000)4 FAO/NACA/UNEP/WB/WWF (2006) International Principles for Responsible Shrimp Farming. Network of Aquaculture Centres in Asia-Pacific (NACA). Bangkok, Thailand. 20p. (Available in English, Arabic, Chinese, French, Portuguese and Spanish atwww.enaca.org/shrimp)78
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Training of TrainersProgramme3-7 Au
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Table of Contents1. Preface 42. Sen
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knowledge about the activities carr
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iosphere, in that it is essentially
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Importance in narrowing the supply
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Figure 7: The trend in aquaculture
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aquaculture has been a success thus
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pathogen transfer is generally cons
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• It highlights the importance a
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particular animal are identified, t
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Knowledge at the bottom of the pyra
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farmer innovation process. In this
Page 28 and 29: • Rapport building• Working str
Page 30 and 31: shrimp farming is undertaken in the
Page 32 and 33: Reintjes, C and Hiemstra, W. 1989 F
Page 34 and 35: • An increase in reliable product
Page 36 and 37: Principles of AACC are to: 1) Facil
Page 38 and 39: Maintaining genetic quality of fish
Page 40 and 41: Where F is the percent increase in
Page 42 and 43: o G=(0.95) 1/10G =0.994883803Figure
Page 44 and 45: Aquaculture extension and training
Page 46 and 47: ResearchExtensionFarmersFlow of inf
Page 48 and 49: view of outside world than before a
Page 50 and 51: Along with fish sample, the support
Page 52 and 53: Fungal examinationFungal infection
Page 54 and 55: few different pathogen strains. The
Page 56 and 57: Major finfish diseases in Asia and
Page 58 and 59: A great number and diversity of ani
Page 60 and 61: • -oxidase test positive• -resi
Page 62 and 63: ReferencesAustin, B. and D. Austin.
Page 64 and 65: Accessing better markets-improving
Page 66 and 67: Owing to its importance in generati
Page 68 and 69: adopt standards for responsible shr
Page 70: Tokrisna R, Benheam W., 1995. Gain
Page 73 and 74: of the temperature rise that were d
Page 75 and 76: Principles of developing, validatin
Page 77: such as determinants, exposures and
Page 81 and 82: economic sustainability. BMPs need
Page 83 and 84: Once you understand your stakeholde
Page 85 and 86: As conventional approaches such as
Page 87 and 88: Printed publicationsPrinted publica
Page 89 and 90: Set up a blog or website for your w
Page 91 and 92: If you have a website, all you need
Page 93 and 94: ought about increased profits among
Page 95 and 96: • It is a farming system the prod
Page 97 and 98: Annex 1. The area surveyed for obta
Page 99 and 100: contribute substantially to maintai
Page 101 and 102: seawater, but in fresh water its le
Page 103 and 104: type of ingredients used, since som
Page 105 and 106: This is a new approach used to buil
Page 107 and 108: New, M.B., A. G. J. Tacon and I. Cs
Page 109 and 110: later stages it has become a much m
Page 111 and 112: c. Improved information exchange an
Page 113 and 114: implemented by both societies. Inte
Page 115 and 116: With better informed farmers, the s
Page 117 and 118: According to FAO, it is estimated t
Page 119 and 120: Farmer organization as models for p
Page 121 and 122: NaCSA disseminates BMPs mainly thro
Page 123 and 124: 1. Drain the pond water completely
Page 125 and 126: Seed transportation and Stocking:
Page 127 and 128: 7. Presently 100% of the society po
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would help in sustaining shrimp sec
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Stress brought about by the capture
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Enhance women participation in aqua
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women in aquaculture and identify a
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major percentage of staff, the need
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having more self confidence through
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Overall status of men and women in
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Compliance to international standar
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(ii) to protect human or animal lif
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c) FAO/WHO Codex Alimentarius Commi
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Annex 1: List of participantsCountr
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Annex 2: AgendaDate Time Presentati
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Annex 3: List of resource persons1.
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