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ResearchExtensionFarmersFlow of information/TechnologyFlow of information/influence on decision makingFig 2. An improved extension scheme.Challenge in Aquaculture Extension and Training of Small Scale FarmersChallenge in technology extension to and training of small scale farmers is closely and characteristicallyassociated with physical and socio-economic environment in which small-scale farming is carried out. Rural smallscalefarmers carry out their farming activities in complex both internal and external physical and socio-economicenvironments. The physical environment, especially for farmers in developing countries is often dominated by lowavailability of or limited access to farming resources, uncertain natural conditions, and little capacity to cope withany natural disasters. Small scale farmers often find it difficult to adopt any change in their farming systems due toresource limitation and farming risk related to harsh environmental conditions. They are often the socioeconomicallymarginalized and have very little social influence and financial power which virtually prevent themfrom investment in adopting new technology.Lack of efficient information exchange and interaction between scientists, extension agents and farmers imposeanother major challenge to aquaculture extension. Extension and research are often housed separately, often inentirely different government departments and hence seldom interact with each other. Extension agents are notinvited to research meetings and vice versa. Researchers tend to scorn the more poorly educated extensionagents, just as the extension agents scorn the farmers. None of these conditions creates an atmosphereconducive to the flow in information.Training for aquaculture extension agents is often inadequate for what is arguably the most difficult aspect oftechnology development and transfer (Haight 1995). Aquaculture extension agents are typically trained in only themost basic aspects of the technology they are expected to disseminate. They seldom understand the underlying45
principles of aquaculture and consequently lack the flexibility they need to fit fish farming into the highlypersonalized farming systems. Consequently, although information does flow to farmers, the quality of thisinformation is not always very high. The farmers perceive this and, more often than not, wisely refuse to adopt it.Extension agents only rarely receive training in the interpersonal and communication skills which are essential forthe efficient transmission of information between persons of different education levels. Most of them have littleknowledge on adult learning process and lack of skills to do farmers’ training. Being government officers,extension agents often tend to show their superiority to rural people and lack of mutual respects which mentallyhindered farmers’ acceptance of technical advice and useful information.Extension in most developing countries is the entry-level function in government departments dealing with smallscalefarming development, including aquaculture. Since high quality human resources are usually in short supply,there is a high degree of upward mobility in government services. Hence, extension personnel who perform welland have superior capabilities are quickly removed from the field, given additional training, and end up working inlaboratories or behind desks. Left in the extension services are inexperienced young people and older people whowere judged by their superiors as unsuitable for promotion.Government services in developing countries often suffer from inadequate funding. It is not surprising thatextension, which is often viewed as a low-level job, also receives minimal financial support. Furthermore, thepayback from such dispersed activities as small-scale aquaculture is difficult to document. Transportation, facilitiesand essential equipment for data collection and analysis are expensive and thus often in short supply, and salariesare often not sufficient to cover the cost of living for staff. Couple this with inadequate training, and it should be nosurprise that the information collection and transmission capability of the majority of extension agents is less thanwhat it should be.Opportunities for ImprovementDespite the major challenges, rural economic and social development in general has been nurturing favourableenvironment for improvement of aquaculture extension and farmers training.Apart from increasing fund from government, financial support from private sector, development agencies andNGOs to aquaculture extension is also growing. The increasing financial input makes it possible for manyexploratory and innovative extension projects to be implemented and for much qualified professionals to work inaquaculture extension.Institutionally, systems are changing and functioning towards establishment of a closer linkage between scientists,extension agents and farmers. Researchers have the tendency to consult with extension agents more frequently.Joint staff meetings or representation by research at extension meetings and vice versa are becomingpossibilities. Conducting joint demonstrations to farmers has been used as a means of getting research andextension together by many development projects. Another mechanism is to have researchers and extensionpersonnel conduct joint experiments and in fact some research projects hire qualified extension specialist to makesure their research is relevant and research findings are disseminated and extended to targeted farmingcommunities. Such research projects would not only bring scientists and extension staff into contact with eachother, it would also have the added benefit of encouraging extension agents to study the underlying principles ofaquaculture in a controlled fashion.Basic aquaculture technologies are not in short for choice, which form a rich knowledge base for aquacultureextension and development. Various innovative extension approaches are field tested and readily availableAt the other end of the continuum, farmers are receiving better formal education than before. They also havemuch better access to information with fast development of modern information technology. They have broader46
Page 1 and 2: Training of TrainersProgramme3-7 Au
Page 3 and 4: Table of Contents1. Preface 42. Sen
Page 5 and 6: knowledge about the activities carr
Page 7 and 8: iosphere, in that it is essentially
Page 10 and 11: Importance in narrowing the supply
Page 12 and 13: Figure 7: The trend in aquaculture
Page 14: aquaculture has been a success thus
Page 17 and 18: pathogen transfer is generally cons
Page 19 and 20: • It highlights the importance a
Page 21 and 22: particular animal are identified, t
Page 23: Knowledge at the bottom of the pyra
Page 26 and 27: farmer innovation process. In this
Page 28 and 29: • Rapport building• Working str
Page 30 and 31: shrimp farming is undertaken in the
Page 32 and 33: Reintjes, C and Hiemstra, W. 1989 F
Page 34 and 35: • An increase in reliable product
Page 36 and 37: Principles of AACC are to: 1) Facil
Page 38 and 39: Maintaining genetic quality of fish
Page 40 and 41: Where F is the percent increase in
Page 42 and 43: o G=(0.95) 1/10G =0.994883803Figure
Page 44 and 45: Aquaculture extension and training
Page 48 and 49: view of outside world than before a
Page 50 and 51: Along with fish sample, the support
Page 52 and 53: Fungal examinationFungal infection
Page 54 and 55: few different pathogen strains. The
Page 56 and 57: Major finfish diseases in Asia and
Page 58 and 59: A great number and diversity of ani
Page 60 and 61: • -oxidase test positive• -resi
Page 62 and 63: ReferencesAustin, B. and D. Austin.
Page 64 and 65: Accessing better markets-improving
Page 66 and 67: Owing to its importance in generati
Page 68 and 69: adopt standards for responsible shr
Page 70: Tokrisna R, Benheam W., 1995. Gain
Page 73 and 74: of the temperature rise that were d
Page 75 and 76: Principles of developing, validatin
Page 77 and 78: such as determinants, exposures and
Page 79 and 80: How to promote adoption of BMPs?Pro
Page 81 and 82: economic sustainability. BMPs need
Page 83 and 84: Once you understand your stakeholde
Page 85 and 86: As conventional approaches such as
Page 87 and 88: Printed publicationsPrinted publica
Page 89 and 90: Set up a blog or website for your w
Page 91 and 92: If you have a website, all you need
Page 93 and 94: ought about increased profits among
Page 95 and 96: • It is a farming system the prod
Page 97 and 98:
Annex 1. The area surveyed for obta
Page 99 and 100:
contribute substantially to maintai
Page 101 and 102:
seawater, but in fresh water its le
Page 103 and 104:
type of ingredients used, since som
Page 105 and 106:
This is a new approach used to buil
Page 107 and 108:
New, M.B., A. G. J. Tacon and I. Cs
Page 109 and 110:
later stages it has become a much m
Page 111 and 112:
c. Improved information exchange an
Page 113 and 114:
implemented by both societies. Inte
Page 115 and 116:
With better informed farmers, the s
Page 117 and 118:
According to FAO, it is estimated t
Page 119 and 120:
Farmer organization as models for p
Page 121 and 122:
NaCSA disseminates BMPs mainly thro
Page 123 and 124:
1. Drain the pond water completely
Page 125 and 126:
Seed transportation and Stocking:
Page 127 and 128:
7. Presently 100% of the society po
Page 129 and 130:
would help in sustaining shrimp sec
Page 131 and 132:
Stress brought about by the capture
Page 133 and 134:
Enhance women participation in aqua
Page 135 and 136:
women in aquaculture and identify a
Page 137 and 138:
major percentage of staff, the need
Page 139 and 140:
having more self confidence through
Page 141 and 142:
Overall status of men and women in
Page 143 and 144:
Compliance to international standar
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(ii) to protect human or animal lif
Page 147 and 148:
c) FAO/WHO Codex Alimentarius Commi
Page 149 and 150:
Annex 1: List of participantsCountr
Page 151 and 152:
Annex 2: AgendaDate Time Presentati
Page 153:
Annex 3: List of resource persons1.
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