Tony Bennett, Differing diversities - Council of Europe

Differing diversitiesculture they have employed. 1 This paper examines the development of EuropeanUnion cultural policies from a historical and anthropological perspective byaddressing two questions. First, why has “culture” – a subject that prior to the1980s was deemed of esoteric and marginal interest – emerged as such an importantconcern for European Union policy makers? Second, what are the implicationsof the European Union’s increasing intervention in the cultural domain fordebates about cultural diversity, citizenship, social exclusion and democracy?The main proposition advanced below is that European Union cultural policy isdriven by problematic assumptions about “culture” as an integrative mechanism.European Union policy makers have sought to harness culture as a vehicle for promotingsolidarity and social cohesion among Europeans, but the eurocentrism andclass bias inherent in their conceptions of culture also promote exclusion andintolerance, particularly towards those who fall outside the boundaries of officialEuropean culture, including Africans, Asians and other categories of “non-European”. The European Union’s record on combating racism suggests that itclearly recognises the multicultural character of contemporary European societies.However, this is not reflected in its cultural policy, which typically expresses theinterests and assumptions of European political elites, and a small but growingBrussels-based cultural lobby. While specific cultural initiatives invariably resultfrom compromises and bargains between individual member states, EuropeanUnion cultural policy in its general sense has been shaped primarily by politicalfactors. 2 European Union policy makers have long held the belief that to forge aunited Europe requires not simply economic and monetary union or a shared legaland political architecture, but also the creation of a more palpable sense ofEuropean consciousness and shared identity among the peoples of Europe.The theoretical background to this can be briefly stated. All political systems, particularlydemocratic ones, seek legitimacy in the cultural field. 3 In order to havelegitimacy and authority, political institutions must enjoy the consent of the citizensin whose name they govern. The cultural foundations of modern citizenship,as Kalberg (1993) has noted, are civic responsibility and social trust, both of whichdepend upon the sense people have of belonging to a political community. To date,however, lack of popular support for the European Union remains a key obstacleto its project for European integration. The problem is that the peoples of Europehave failed to embrace European institutions and ideals in the way that was hopedfor or, indeed, predicted by traditional theories of integration. According to influentialtheorists of integration, including Ernst Haas and Leon Lindberg, popularloyalty to the European Community would grow as each successive step towardsever-closer union demonstrated the material benefits to be gained by further integration(Haas, 1958; Lindberg, 1963). This instrumental loyalty, so the argument__________1. For a more considered debate about the potential scope of the culture concept, see EuropeanCommission, 1996.2. While I would stress the political rationale behind the European Union’s growing interest in culture,it also reflects the European Union’s increasing recognition of the commercial importance of the culturalindustries, particularly in the fields of tourism and communications technologies.3. For a good analysis of this argument see Habermas, 1992.108