A Concise Encyclopedia of Hinduism Klaus K Klostermaie
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equality <strong>of</strong> women 66<br />
result <strong>of</strong> debates between different<br />
schools, major works on epistemology<br />
were written by several authors who<br />
attempted to refute other opinions and<br />
to establish their own conclusions on<br />
rational grounds.<br />
equality <strong>of</strong> women<br />
Women and men were considered equal<br />
during early Vedic times: women<br />
appear as composers <strong>of</strong> Vedic HYMNS<br />
(ø•is), as vedic teachers (ÄCÄRYÄS) and as<br />
companions in rituals. With the<br />
increased specialization <strong>of</strong> brahmanic<br />
ritual and the rise <strong>of</strong> urban culture the<br />
status <strong>of</strong> women has diminished. The<br />
influential MANU-SMØTI (sixth century<br />
BCE?), while giving lavish praise to the<br />
mother in the home, advises that a<br />
woman should never be without male<br />
supervision. In childhood she was to be<br />
under the authority <strong>of</strong> her father, in<br />
marrriage under the rule <strong>of</strong> her husband,<br />
in widowhood under the supervision<br />
<strong>of</strong> her son. Ritually also women<br />
were disadvantaged: they no longer<br />
received UPANAYANA, they could not<br />
study the Veda, they were excluded<br />
from most religious activities. BHAKTI<br />
movements attempted to readmit women<br />
to religious practices, sometimes even<br />
placing women higher than men, as did<br />
the GAU¥ÏYA Vai•æavas, who considered<br />
the GOPÏS superior to male devotees. In<br />
ŸÄKTISM women were given an exalted<br />
position in rituals as embodiments <strong>of</strong><br />
the Goddess. With the Muslim conquest<br />
<strong>of</strong> India, restrictions on the movement<br />
<strong>of</strong> women increased: Hindus adopted<br />
the Muslim custom <strong>of</strong> purdah and did<br />
not allow women to leave their assigned<br />
quarters without special permission.<br />
Many Hindu reformers <strong>of</strong> the 19th and<br />
early 20th centuries fought for women’s<br />
rights and women’s education.<br />
Mahatma GANDHI accepted women as<br />
equal partners in the struggle for independence,<br />
and expressed the wish to see<br />
a Harijan woman as the first president<br />
<strong>of</strong> independent India. Since the 1960s<br />
Indian womens’ movements have grown<br />
in importance and influence. The HINDU<br />
MARRIAGE ACT <strong>of</strong> 1956 established the<br />
equality <strong>of</strong> men and women in most<br />
matters on a legal basis. In spite <strong>of</strong> all<br />
these efforts old attitudes towards<br />
women continue. Although the giving<br />
and taking <strong>of</strong> dowries is outlawed, it is<br />
still widely practised, and frequently<br />
leads to criminal abuses. The so-called<br />
‘dowry deaths’ are the result <strong>of</strong> failed<br />
attempts to blackmail brides’ parents<br />
into providing more dowry; the <strong>of</strong>ten<br />
open-ended agreements concerning<br />
dowries expose brides to threats and<br />
abuse. (See also FEMALE INFANTICIDE.)<br />
eternity<br />
Concepts premised on eternity (nitya,<br />
ananta, amarta) are central to <strong>Hinduism</strong>.<br />
It was always assumed that the ultimate<br />
principle, the supreme reality, the highest<br />
God, was eternal, i.e. without beginning<br />
or end. Attempts to win immortality<br />
are described in Hindu literature<br />
from the Vedas through the epics to the<br />
Puräæas. With the Upani•ads the notion<br />
arose that the soul (jïvätma) was eternal,<br />
uncreated and indestructible. As<br />
long as it was not emancipated from its<br />
bodily desires, it had to transmigrate<br />
from one corporeal existence to the<br />
next. The ultimate destiny was immortality<br />
and eternity.<br />
ethics (ÿïla)<br />
The definition <strong>of</strong> <strong>Hinduism</strong> as DHARMA<br />
clearly indicates the primacy <strong>of</strong> ethics:<br />
while beliefs and doctrinal formulations<br />
were largely left to individual choice,<br />
conformity with the rules <strong>of</strong> behaviour,<br />
including ritual, was mandatory and the<br />
single most important criterion <strong>of</strong> membership<br />
in Hindu society.<br />
evil<br />
The conflict between good and evil is<br />
represented in Hindu tradition in a