Introduction to Acoustics

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Subject Index 3 dB bandwidth 463 A abdominal muscles 670 ABR (auditory brainstem responses) 353 absolute threshold 460 absorption 390 – coefficient 390 – low frequency 392 AC (articulation class) 421 accelerometer 907 ACF (autocorrelation function) 351, 352 acoustic – cavitation 292 – chaos 289 – distance 1059 – Doppler current profiler (ADCP) 187 – fingerprints 596 – holography 1079 – impedance 61 – impedance of ground surfaces 123 – intensity 208 – source identification 1077 – telemetry 191 – transfer impedance 1045 –trauma 447 – tube 733 acoustic system – biological 785, 802 acoustic waves – types of 208 acoustical – efficiency 906 – holography 1102 – horn 431 – resistance 906, 927 acoustically hard/soft 120 acoustically neutral 134, 135 acoustics – 19th century 12 – 20th century 15 – architectural 15, 299 – biological 785, 802 – engineering 18, 1019 – history 9 – musical 21, 22, 531 – physical 16, 205 – physiological 20, 429 – psychological 20, 459 – speech 21, 669 – structural 19, 901 – underwater 19, 149 actin 443 action potentials 441 active cochlea 439 active intensity 1055 active processing 185 adaptation motor 444, 445 ADC (analog-to-digital converter) 520, 714, 769, 1131 ADCP (acoustic Doppler current profiler) 187 additive synthesis 719 adiabatic mode theory 170 admittance – local 536 –matrix 910 – non-local 536 – simple harmonic oscillator 535 –tensor 579 – violin 594 admittance measurement – violin 595 ADP (ammonium dihydrogen phosphate) 18 AF (audio frequency) 859 afferent 435, 436 AFSUMB (Asian Federation for Societies of Ultrasound in Medicine and Biology) 895 AI (articulation index) 419 air absorption 116 air coupled Rayleigh waves 129 airflow 1063, 1068 air-jet – coupling to air column 633 – modelling 633 – Rayleigh instability 633 – vorticity 634 air-jet resonator – modelling 634 – mouthpiece impedance 635 air-moving devices (AMDs) 984 AIUM (American Institute of Ultrasound in Medicine) 894 ALARA (as low as reasonably achievable) 895 alias 521 aliasing 715 all-pass filter 734 AM (amplitude modulation) 768 American Institute of Ultrasound in Medicine (AIUM) 894 American National Standards Institute (ANSI) 1008 ammonium dihydrogen phosphate (ADP) 18 amplitude 504 – modulation (AM) 768 –wave 210 AN (auditory nerve) 434 AN fiber 441 AN population 449 analog – electric network 789 –network 800–802 analog signal 521 – spectrum 521 analog-to-digital converter (ADC) 520, 714, 769, 1131 analytic listening 482 analytic signal 514 anatomy – of sounds 540 – vocal 795 animal 785, 793, 802 – air breathing 787 – aquatic 797 – auditory system 794 – bioacoustics 785, 802 – hearing 785, 793, 802 – hearing range 787 – sound power 787 – sound production 785, 787, 802 – vocalization frequency 785, 786 anion transporters 448 ANSI (American National Standards Institute) 1008 ANSI standard 1058 anti-resonances 726 apparent source width (ASW) 309 AR (assisted resonance) 348 architectural acoustics 4 area function 687 articulation class (AC) 421 articulation index (AI) 419 articulatory processes 687 1167 Subject Index
1168 Subject Index Subject Index as low as reasonably achievable (ALARA) 895 assisted resonance (AR) 348 ASUM (Australasian Society for Ultrasound in Medicine) 895 ASW (apparent source width) 309 asynchrony detection 476 atmospheric instability – shear and bouyancy 138 atmospheric stability 133 atmospheric turbulence – Bragg reflection 139 – von Karman spectrum 140 attenuation 219 – atmospheric 786 – measurement of 221 – through trees 129 audibility of partials 467 audio classification 738 audio feature extraction 738 audio frequency (AF) 859 audiogram 461 auditory brainstem responses (ABR) 353 auditory filter 462 auditory grouping 485 auditory nerve (AN) 434 auditory scene analysis 485 auditory system – animal 794 auditory temporal window 360 autocorrelation 725 autocorrelation function (ACF) 351, 352, 510, 527 – discrete samples 527 AUV (automated underwater vehicle) 191 B backward masking 465, 474 backward propagation 1083 balanced noise criterion (NCB) curves 404 banded waveguides 734 bandlimiting 716 bandwidth 715 bandwidth and loudness 470 bandwidth-time response 547 bar vibrations 648 – celeste 649 – marimba 649, 650 – triangle 651 – vibraphone 649, 650 – xylophone 649, 650 Bark scale 464 barrier attenuation 117 barrier edge diffraction – Maekawa’s formula 117 barrier insertion loss 118 barriers 402 barriers of finite length 119 bars 920 basilar membrane 436–438, 440, 447 basis function 1077 bass bar 575 bass drum 648 bass ratio (BR) 310 bassoon 622, 637 bats 796 – echo-location 796 Bayes’s theorem 513 BB (bite block) 704 beam nonuniformity ratio (BNR) 889 beam-forming method 1078 beam-forming properties 181 beams – flexural vibrations 920 – free–free 921 – nonlinear vibrations 956 – prestressed 922 – with variable cross section 922 beats 214 Bell, Alexander Graham 14 bells 658 –FEA 659 – holograms 659 – mode degeneracy 661 – mode nomenclature 659 – modes 659 – non-axial symmetry 661 – tuning 659 BEM (boundary-element method) 1134 BER (bit error rate) 193 Bernoulli pressure 621 Bessel functions 919, 925 – modified 925 best frequency (BF) 438 BF (best frequency) 438 bias error index 1062 binaural cues for localization 484 binaural impulse response 378 binaural interaction 452 binaural listening level (LL) 351 bioacoustics 785 Biot theory for dynamic poroelasticity 126 bird – auditory system 793 – sound power 787 – vocal anatomy 795 birdsong 795, 796 – formant 795, 796 – pure tone 796 bit error rate (BER) 193 bite block (BB) 704 BMUS (British Medical Ultrasound Society) 895 body modes 581 – admittance measurement 581 – collective motions 581 Boehm key system 638 BoSSA (bowed sensor speaker array) 737 bottom loss 157 boundary conditions 723 boundary-element method (BEM) 1134 boundary-layer limit 243, 250 bowed sensor speaker array (BoSSA) 737 bowed string 732 – bow position 566 – bow pressure 566 – bow speed 566 – bowing machine 570 – computer modelling 568 – flattening 569 – Green’s function 568 – Helmholtz waves 566, 567 – playing regimes 567 – pressure broadening 569 – slip–stick friction 567 – transients 569 – viscoelastic friction 570 Brain Opera 738 breathing – diaphragm 672 – in speech and singing 669, 671 – internal intercostals 670 – mode 589, 598, 658 bridge – admittance 572, 573, 577 – bouncing mode 571 – bridge-hill (BH) feature 572 – coupling to body 571 –design 574 – dynamics 573 – mechanical models 571 – muting 574 – resonant frequency 572 – rocking motion 573 – rotational mode 571 – timbre 574 – vibrational modes 570
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Springer Handbook of Acoustics
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Springer Handbook of Acoustics Thom
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Foreword The present handbook cover
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List of Authors Iskander Akhatov No
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Philippe Roux Université Joseph Fo
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XIV Contents 3.7 Attenuation of Sou
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XVI Contents 10 Concert Hall Acoust
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XVIII Contents 17.8 Physical Modeli
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XX Contents 24.5 Free-Field Microph
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XXII List of Abbreviations K KDP po
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Introduction 1. Introduction to Aco
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of noise have been the subject of c
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in order to understand how objectiv
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A Brief 2. A Brief History of Acous
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of 350 m/s for the speed of sound [
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number and relative strength of its
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To his contemporaries, Koenig was p
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Probably the most important use of
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piezoelectric ceramic compositions
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surveys together [2.46]. Masking of
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ther of computer music, since he de
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Basic 3. Linear Basic Linear Acoust
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M average molecular weight n unit v
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a) b) S v.n ∆t ∆S V |v| ∆t n
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temperature, q =−κ∇T , (3.16)
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The equivalent density M/V is conse
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Basic Linear Acoustics 3.3 Equation
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Because any vector field may be dec
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The latter and (3.84), in a manner
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assumed to have no ambient motion,
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Because the friction associated wit
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3.5 Waves of Constant Frequency One
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3.5.4 Time Averages of Products Whe
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as well as symmetry considerations,
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The auxiliary internal variables th
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Then the transient at a distant pos
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ω ′ = 0, and this is consistent
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1.0 10 -1 10 -2 10 -3 10 -4 10 -5 A
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This yields the interpretation that
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direction of propagation when a pla
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so the time-averaged incident energ
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Although the simple result of (3.31
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ut, also in keeping with the linear
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equation, the two differential equa
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Rodrigues relation, one has �1
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for the derivative.) In the asympto
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The differential scattering cross s
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elow) is F(t) = (2c) 1/2 �t −
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0.5 0 -0.5 -1.0 -1.5 0 Y0(η) (π/2
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is the Wronskian for the Bessel and
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The function qS is termed the sourc
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The appropriate identification for
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where jℓ is the spherical Bessel
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this subtlety taken into account, o
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U(x) Basic Linear Acoustics 3.15 Wa
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is ordinarily valid. With these ass
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along rays. These can be regarded a
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A(x0) x0 A(x) Fig. 3.53 Sketch of a
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possible, and one where neither the
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which is independent of the z-coord
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[3.108], and Carslaw [3.109]. In th
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where C(X)andS(X) are the Fresnel i
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Fig. 3.60 Characteristic diffractio
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of elastic solids, Trans. Camb. Phi
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3.101 J.B. Keller: Geometrical acou
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114 Part A Propagation of Sound Par
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Underwater 5. Underwater Acoustics
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5.1 Ocean Acoustic Environment The
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Long-Range Propagation Paths Figure
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tal direction, there is no loss ass
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equivalent circuit, as shown in Fig
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Attenuation á (dB/km) 1000 100 10
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5.2.5 Ambient Noise There are essen
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ubble natural acoustic resonance ω
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a bubbly medium (and for the simple
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As discussed, because detection inv
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(1/A)∇ 2 A ≪ K 2 )sothat(5.34)
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water, where the deep sound channel
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egion in the form p(r, z) = ψ(r, z
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5.4.6 Propagation and Transmission
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tegration interval. The source puls
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5.6 SONAR Array Processing Signal p
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former output is: �∞ b(θ,t) =
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Fig. 5.37 Angle-versus-time represe
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5.7 Active SONAR Processing Depth M
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a factor when there is a reverberan
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depth measurements that correspond
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along the cross-shelf track taken b
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time as a result of multiple paths,
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technique is very sensitive, and ex
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Fig. 5.57a,b Typical echogram obtai
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Frequency (Hz) 150 100 50 0 0 a) b)
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out. These data allow for study of
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5.59 G. Raleigh, J.M. Cioffi: Spati
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Physical 6. Physical Acou Acoustics
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where I is the intensity of the sou
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Wave velocity The wall exerts a dow
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destructively interfered with one a
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or: � � p2 � rms SPL = 10 log
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6.1.4 Wave Propagation in Solids Si
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where c is again the wave speed and
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measured. Some resonances are cause
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as 50 µmto5µm through one oscilla
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the number of false positives and m
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with the small mass), and frequency
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Laser Lens 1 Circular aperture Fig.
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Ground ring Insulator Sample Resist
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Energy ratio 1.0 0.8 0.6 0.4 Calcul
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terms. In this equation γ is the r
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directly. The nonlinearity paramete
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Thermoacoust 7. Thermoacoustics The
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Table 7.1 The acoustic-electric ana
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walls of the pores. (Positive G ind
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a) b) c) C reso d) δtherm e) p 0 U
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a) b) UA,l c) d) E 0 Q A Q A TA TA
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tor. This eliminates the need to le
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to this consumption of acoustic pow
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The traditional Stirling refrigerat
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Washington 1986) pp. 550-554, Softw
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258 Part B Physical and Nonlinear A
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Acoustics 9. Acoustics in Halls for
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parameters, so we can assist in bui
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weeks or even years is less reliabl
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9.3.1 Reverberation Time Reverberan
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selected). A distance different fro
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ing sound, as will naturally be exp
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of the sound fields. Consequently,
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e derived from interrupted noise de
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Acoustics in Halls for Speech and M
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espectively, can be calculated from
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ated by the architects. However, on
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of C and G. However, as all the ind
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F b d F n I S Fb Fn S d F n/F b d/d
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HS S èn ã d0 P0 rn Position of ey
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Time T (s) 2.5 2 1.5 1 5 10 15 Acou
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floor can be tilted to reduce volum
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ÄLcurv (dB) 10 8 6 4 2 0 -2 -4 -6
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Seating capacity 2662 1 915 + 324 2
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4 3 2 1 Acoustics in Halls for Spee
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cially in auditoria with T values l
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esonance (AR)andmultichannel reverb
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Concert 10. Concert Hall Acoustics
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Concert Hall Acoustics Based on Sub
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0 0 Concert Hall Acoustics Based on
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mately by Concert Hall Acoustics Ba
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10.1.5 Specialization of Cerebral H
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The other (n − 1) bits indicated
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As for the conflicting requirements
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have mainly been concerned with tem
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a) c) S S -4.3 -2.8 -2.0 -3.5 -3dB
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a model of the auditory-brain syste
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Building 11. Building Acou Acoustic
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Pressure Maximum Minimum 0 D Distan
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Table 11.1 Absorption coefficients
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Absorption coefficient α 1 0 Frequ
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is of key importance in rooms where
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Table 11.4 Transmission loss and ST
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TL of wall - (TL of door, window or
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Table 11.7 Generalized noise reduct
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Masking sound pressure level (dB) 5
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As for the room criterion (RC) meth
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11.5 Noise Control Methods for Buil
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Neoprene pads (30 durometer) with a
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Concrete Caulk around perimeter Vib
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Trim board to conceal gap (fasten o
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Gypsum board partition (as schedule
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Double-layer ribbed or waffle neopr
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11.6 Acoustical Privacy in Building
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Table 11.9 AI,SIIandPIforopenplanof
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Electronic sound masking in plenum
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E 1179 Standard Specification for S
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430 Part D Hearing and Signal Proce
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Psychoacoust 13. Psychoacoustics Ps
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Absolute threshold (dB SPL) 100 90
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the signal. By using this off-cente
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is as a crude indicator of the exci
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Relative response (dB) 100 90 80 70
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In a variation of this procedure, t
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Level of matching noise (dB) 100 90
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13.4 Temporal Processing in the Aud
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Most models include an initial stag
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The components were either uniforml
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(Frequency DL)/ERBN 0.2 0.1 0.05 0.
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elaborate place models have been pr
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13.6 Timbre Perception 13.6.1 Time-
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the duplex theory of sound localiza
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harmonic (by shifting the frequency
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sive. While some studies have been
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sentences (see Fig. 13.20). They va
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components is usually only perceive
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References 13.1 ISO 389-7: Acoustic
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13.74 D. Ronken: Monaural detection
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asymmetric function, J. Acoust. Soc
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13.211 J. Vliegen, A.J. Oxenham: Se
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534 Part E Music, Speech, Electroac
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The 16. The Human Human Voice in Sp
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uation, the effect of gravity is in
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piratory muscles (the internal inte
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Mean Ps (cm H2O) 50 40 30 20 10 0 D
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Glottal flow Closed Opening Open Cl
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Transglottal airflow (l/s) 0.4 0.2
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Mean spectrum level (dB) -30 -40 -5
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20 10 0 -10 -20 -30 -40 -50 0 i y u
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Mean level (dB) 0 -10 -20 -30 -40 1
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This topic was addressed by Ladefog
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Fig. 16.29 Acoustic consequences of
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Bass i e u Alto Tenor o ε œ æ Th
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100 80 60 40 20 0 -20 100 80 60 40
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tours for [� ]and[Ù ] sampled at
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Rapp [16.100] asked three native sp
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Utterance command T0 T3 Accent comm
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The # symbol indicates the possibil
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Second formant frequency (Hz) 2500
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tional rather than absolute (à la
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16.7 P. Ladefoged, M.H. Draper, D.
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esonance imaging: Vowels, J. Acoust
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16.139 A. Eriksson: Aspects of Swed
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Computer 17. Computer Mu Music This
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Quantum step Amplitude Quantization
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Some might notice that linear inter
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pers, textbooks, patents, etc. Furt
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0:00.0 0.5 0 Computer Music 17.3 Ad
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(0,0) (0,1) (1,1) (0,2) (1,2) (0,3)
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synthesizing vocoder. The main diff
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x(n) + z -1 z -1 Scattering junctio
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230 Hz FOF 1100 Hz FOF 1700 Hz FOF
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0 y + - Computer Music 17.8 Physica
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-1 (1-ß )×length Velocity + Veloc
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0 -30 (dB) -60 0 1.5 3 4.5 (kHz) Fi
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17.10 Composition The history of co
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and variance of the features can be
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17.20 J.L. Kelly Jr., C.C. Lochbaum
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Audio 18. Audio and Electroacoustic
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Alexander Graham Bell filed his pat
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on magnetic stripes. A common arran
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60 40 20 0 SPL-sound pressure level
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Interaural intensity difference (dB
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with equalization, without incurrin
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Fig. 18.8 Sine wave with crossover
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18.3.8 Dynamic Range Dynamic range
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Directly actuated type Diaphragm ty
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effective pickup pattern of the arr
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attempts to apply complementary com
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Most of the issues relating to spea
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nificant design considerations. At
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Some appreciation of the performanc
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pre-digital reverberators were elec
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and ‘s’ in English text - may b
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content of rest of the signal spect
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cross the head, in opposite directi
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18.2 J. Sterne: The Audible Past (D
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18.71 T. Sporer: Creating, assessin
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786 Part F Biological and Medical A
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Medical 21. Medical Acous Acoustics
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21.1 Introduction to Medical Acoust
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Auscultation location Right & left
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portance. The Strouhal number has b
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Fig. 21.3 Phono-cardiograph transdu
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Amplitude 8 6 4 2 0 -2 -4 -6 Displa
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λ1 = c1 / fus θ1 λ2 = c2 / fus
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lood flow can be resolved if the si
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vided in the image thickness direct
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not as predicted, because the wave
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Fig. 21.18a,b Quadrature Doppler de
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a) b) c) 100 0 V mV 10 0 a = 13 a =
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Ultrasound contact gel Position enc
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a) 10 cm b) c) 10 cm Fig. 21.32a-c
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a) Pin B Pin A Ultrasound line b) M
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Organ Patient Ultrasound transducer
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systems cannot tell the difference
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40 µm can be resolved. For a 10 kH
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a) b) c) d) Medical Acoustics 21.4
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Fig. 21.54 Doppler spectral wavefor
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10 20 30 10 20 30 Pre-exercise B-mo
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Vibrations in a punctured artery De
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the veins and diffuse into the inte
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21.5.3 Agitated Saline and Patent F
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transported by those cells and/or r
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1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 Relative power
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High intensity focused ultrasound h
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a) b) c) Fig. 21.74a-c B-mode imagi
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provided simple metrics for the lik
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thickness of the carotid arteries,
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Structural 22. Structural Acoustics
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Structural Acoustics and Vibrations
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Magnitude (arb. units) 1.4 1.2 1.0
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This does not include the case wher
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the mass matrix is taken to be cons
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Magnitude (dB) -10 -30 -50 0 1 2 3
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where D(ω) = ω 4 − 2iω 3�
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form y(x, t) = � Φn(x)qn(t) . (2
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first to solve the wave equation (2
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5 3 1 -1 -3 -5 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
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conditions at each end) are necessa
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from which we can derive through (2
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In this case, the eigenfrequencies
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of radiation modes and their link w
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Finally, the displacement is ˜ξ(x
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notes the value of this eigenmode a
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Pm = ˙Q H [Rs + Ra] ˙Q , (22.262)
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where and Ra = 2ζaω0 M Z(s) = zL
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Radiated Power. The mean acoustic p
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(22.318) can be written ξ(x, y, t)
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Denoting the eigenfrequencies and e
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Magnitude (arb. units) 3 2 1 0 -1 -
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for any real symmetric tensor Xij.
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F(N) 1 0.5 0 -0.5 -1 -1 -0.8 -0.6 -
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whose solution is θ1 = A cos ωτ.
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4.5 3.5 2.5 1.5 A 0.5 0 0.5 1.0 1.5
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Equations (22.423) are usually writ
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3. As the amplitude reaches the top
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Shallow Spherical Shells and Plates
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22.20 L. Cremer, M. Heckl: Structur
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Noise Noise is discussed in terms o
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where the overbars represent time a
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Typical outdoor setting A-weighted
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90 dB(A)” is widely used, and imp
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Microphone, amplifier and A/D conve
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When each segment of the measuremen
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found from � LW = Lp + 10 log A +
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surement method is the ultimate use
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An intensity analyzer is more compl
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23.2.5 Criteria for Noise Emissions
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Table 23.5 Table of limit values fr
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a) Air flows freely to rotor Weak t
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Static efficiency normalized to its
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ful applications. Good results are
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Table 23.8 Crossover speeds for var
Page 988 and 989:
Reduction of airplane engine noise
Page 990 and 991:
A variety of materials are used to
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∆LF (dB) 0 -10 -20 α -30 0.05 0.
Page 994 and 995:
Absorption coefficient 1.0 0.8 0.6
Page 996 and 997:
high enough that there is little so
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23.4.4 Criteria for Noise Immission
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Table 23.10 (cont.) Some features o
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Noise 23.4 Noise and the Receiver 1
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view of administrative procedures r
Page 1006 and 1007:
provides recommendations for a foll
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sound power levels of noise sources
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23.68 ISO: ISO 9296:1988 Acoustics
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in impedance tubes - Part 2: Transf
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23.194 Commission of the European C
Page 1016 and 1017:
1022 Part H Engineering Acoustics P
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Sound 25. Intens Sound Intensity So
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Under such conditions the intensity
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a) Pressure and particle velocity 0
Page 1052 and 1053:
τ is a dummy time variable. The ca
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Error in intensity (dB) 5 0 -5 -10
Page 1056 and 1057:
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 -1 -2 -3 Error du
Page 1058 and 1059:
crophones are calibrated with a pis
Page 1060 and 1061:
Sound power level (dB re 1 pW) 72 7
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it is relatively straightforward si
Page 1064 and 1065:
intensity normal to the source. Thi
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25.9 W. Maysenhölder: The reactive
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25.77 ISO: ISO 11205 Acoustics - No
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Optical 27. Optical Methods Metho f
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course also present in ordinary hol
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Optical Methods for Acoustics and V
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50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450
Page 1104 and 1105:
a) b) Optical Methods for Acoustics
Page 1106 and 1107: nm 1000 0 -1000 150 y (mm) 100 50 O
Page 1108 and 1109: Optical Methods for Acoustics and V
Page 1110 and 1111: Optical Methods for Acoustics and V
Page 1112 and 1113: Laser Optical Methods for Acoustics
Page 1114 and 1115: References 27.1 E.F.F. Chladni: Die
Page 1116 and 1117: 27.75 E.-L.Johansson, L. Benckert,
Page 1118 and 1119: 1128 Part H Engineering Acoustics P
Page 1130 and 1131: About the Authors Iskander Akhatov
Page 1132 and 1133: Neville H. Fletcher Chapter F.19 Au
Page 1134 and 1135: Brian C. J. Moore Chapter D.13 Univ
Page 1136 and 1137: Detailed Contents List of Abbreviat
Page 1138 and 1139: 3.8.3 Acoustic Power ..............
Page 1140 and 1141: 4.8.3 Typical Speed of Sound Profil
Page 1142 and 1143: 7.3 Engines .......................
Page 1144 and 1145: 10 Concert Hall Acoustics Based on
Page 1146 and 1147: 13.4 Temporal Processing in the Aud
Page 1148 and 1149: 15.2.5 String-Bridge-Body Coupling
Page 1150 and 1151: 19.6 Birds ........................
Page 1152 and 1153: 22.4.5 Combinations of Elementary S
Page 1154 and 1155: 24.8 Overall View on Microphone Cal
Page 1158 and 1159: British Medical Ultrasound Society
Page 1160 and 1161: electric circuit analogues - acoust
Page 1162 and 1163: hyperspeech 703 hypospeech 703 I IA
Page 1164 and 1165: - participation factors 909 - stiff
Page 1166 and 1167: - musical instruments 541 - musical
Page 1168 and 1169: - nonlinear vibrations 957 - plate
Page 1170 and 1171: subjective preference theory 353 su
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Introduction to Acoustics

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