Introduction to Acoustics

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666 Part E Music, Speech, Electroacoustics Part E 15 15.173 J. Gilbert, S. Ponthus, J.F. Petoit: Artificial buzzing lips and brass instruments: experimental results, J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 104, 1627–1632m (1998) 15.174 J. Cullen, J.A. Gilbert, D.M. Campbell: Brass instruments: linear stability analysis and experiments with an artificial mouth, Acustica 86, 704–724 (2000) 15.175 N.H. Fletcher: Nonlinear theory of musical wind instruments, Appl. Acoust. 30, 85–115 (1990) 15.176 T.H. Long: The performance of cup-mouthpiece instruments, J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 19, 892–901 (1947) 15.177 A. Hirschberg, J. Gilbert, R. Msallam, A.P.J. Wijnands: Shock waves in trombones, J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 99, 1754–1758 (1996) 15.178 M.E. McIntyre, R.T. Schumacher, J. Woodhouse: On the oscillations of musical instruments, J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 74, 1325–1345 (1983) 15.179 R.D. Ayers: Impulse responses for feedback to the driver of a musical wind instrument, J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 100, 1190–1198 (1996) 15.180 B. Fabre, A. Hirschberg: Physical modelling of flue instruments: a review of lumped models, Acustica 86, 599–610 (2000) 15.181 N.H. Fletcher: Sound production in organ pipes, J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 60, 926–936 (1976) 15.182 P. Savic: On acoustically effective vortex motions in gaseous jets, Philos. Mag. 32, 287–252 (1941) 15.183 J.W. Coltman: Jet drive mechanism in edge tones and organ pipes, J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 60, 723–733 (1976) 15.184 S. Adachi: CFD analysis of air jet deflectioncomparison with Nolle’s measurements, SMAC 03 (Royal Swedish Academy of Music, Stockholm 2003) pp. 313–319 15.185 A.W. Nolle, Sinuous instability of a planar air jet: Propagation parameters and acoustic excitation, J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 103, 3690–3705 (1998) 15.186 L. Cremer, H. Ising: Die selbsterregten Schwingungen von Orgelpfeifen, Acustica 19, 143–153 (1967) 15.187 J.W. Coltman: Sounding mechanism of the flute and organ pipe, J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 44, 983–992 (1968) 15.188 M. Raffel, C. Willert, J. Kompenhans: Particle Image Velocimetry - A Practical Guide (Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg 1998) 15.189 C. Ségoufin, B. Fabre, M.P. Verge, A. Hirschberg, A.P.J. Wijnands: Experimental study of the influence of mouth geometry on sound production in recorder-like instruments: windway length and chamfers, Acta Acustica 86, 649–661 (2000) 15.190 S. Thwaites, N.H. Fletcher: Wave propagation on turbulent jets, Acustica 45, 175–179 (1980) 15.191 S. Thwaites, N.H. Fletcher: Wave propagation of turbulent jets: II, Acustica 51, 44–49 (1982) 15.192 B. Fabre, A. Hirschberg: From sound synthesis to instrument making: an overview of recent re- searches on woodwinds, SMAC 03 (Royal Swedish Academy of Music, Stockholm 2003) pp. 239–242 15.193 N.H. Fletcher: Jet-drive mechanism in organ pipes, J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 60, 481–483 (1976) 15.194 S.A. Elder: On the mechanism of sound production in organ pipes, J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 54, 1554–1564 (1973) 15.195 R.C. Chanaud: Aerodynamic whistles, Sci. Am. 222(1), 40–46 (1970) 15.196 T.A. Wilson, G.S. Beavers, M.A. DeCoster, D.K. Holger, M.D. Regenfuss: Experiments on the fluid mechanics of whistling, J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 50, 366–372 (1971) 15.197 D.K. Holger, T. Wilson, G. Beavers: Fluid mechanics of the edge-tone, J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 62, 1116–1128 (1977) 15.198 S. Yoshikawa: Jet wave amplification in organ pipes, J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 103, 2706–2717 (1998) 15.199 B. Fabre, A. Hirschberg, A.P.J. Wijnands: Vortex shedding in steady oscillations of a flue organ pipe, Acustica - Acta Acustica 82, 877–883 (1996) 15.200 A. Baines: European and American Musical Instruments (Chancellor, London 1983) 15.201 T.D. Rossing: Science of Percussion Instruments (World Scientific, Singapore 2000) 15.202 J. Blades: Percussion Instruments and Their History (Faber, Faber, London 1974) 15.203 P. Boulez: Notations I-IV (Universal Edition, Vienna 1945, 78, 84) 15.204 M. Bertsch: Vibration patterns and sound analysis of the Viennese timpani. ISMA 2001 (Fondazione Scuola Di San Giorgio, Venice 2001) 15.205 C.V. Raman: The Indian Musical Drum, Proc. Indian Acad. Sci. A1 179 (1934). In: Reprinted in Musical Acoustics Selected Reprints, ed. by T.D. Rossing (Am. Assoc. Phys. Teach., College Park 1988) 15.206 T.D. Rossing, W.A. Sykes: Acoustics of indian drums, Percuss. Notes 19(3), 58 (1982) 15.207 B.S. Ramakrishna, M.M. Sondhi: Vibrations of indian musical drums regarded as composite membranes, J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 26, 523(1954) 15.208 S. De: Experimental study of the vibrational characteristics of a loaded kettledrum, Acustica 40,206 (1978) 15.209 H. Zhao: Acoustics of Snare Drums: An Experimental Study of the Modes of Vibration, Mode Coupling and Sound Radiation Pattern, M.S. thesis (Northern Illinois Univ., DeKalb 1990) 15.210 C.V. Raman: On some Indian stringed instruments, Proc. Indian Assoc. Adv. Sci. 7, 29–33 (1922) 15.211 T.D. Rossing, I. Bork, H. Zhao, D. Fystrom: Acoustics of snare drums, J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 92, 84–94 (1992) 15.212 T.D. Rossing: Acoustics of percussion instruments: Part I, Phys. Teacher 14, 546–556 (1976) 15.213 T.D. Rossing: Chladni’s law for vibrating plates, Am. J. Phys. 50, 271–274 (1982)
15.214 N.H. Fletcher: Nonlinear frequency shifts in quasi-spherical-cap shells: Pitch glide in Chinese Gongs, J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 78, 2069 (1985) 15.215 P.L. Grossman, B. Koplik, Y.-Y. Yu: Nonlinear vibration of shallow spherical shells, J. Appl. Mech. 36, 451–458 (1969) 15.216 K.A. Legge, N.H. Fletcher: Non-linear mode coupling in symmetrically kinked bars, J. Sound Vib. 118, 23–34 (1987) 15.217 S. Schedin, P.O. Gren, T.D. Rossing: Transient wave response of a cymbal using double pulsed TV holography, J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 103, 1217–1220 (1998) Musical Acoustics References 667 15.218 R. Perrin, T. Charnley, H. Banu, T.D. Rossing: Chladni’s law and the modern English church bell, J. Sound Vib. 102, 11–19 (1985) 15.219 R. Perrin, T. Charnley, J. de Pont: Normal modes of the modern English church bell, J. Sound Vib. 102, 28048 (1983) 15.220 T.D. Rossing, R. Perrin: Vibration of bells, Appl. Acoust. 20, 41–70 (1988) 15.221 R. Perrin, T. Charnley, J. de Pont: Normal modes of the modern English church bell, J. Sound Vibr. 102, 28048 (1983) 15.222 T.D. Rossing, D.S. Hampton, B.E. Richardson, H.J. Sathoff: Vibrational modes of Chinese twotone bells, J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 83, 369–373 (1988) Part E 15
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Springer Handbook of Acoustics
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Springer Handbook of Acoustics Thom
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Foreword The present handbook cover
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List of Authors Iskander Akhatov No
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Philippe Roux Université Joseph Fo
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XIV Contents 3.7 Attenuation of Sou
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XVI Contents 10 Concert Hall Acoust
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XVIII Contents 17.8 Physical Modeli
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XX Contents 24.5 Free-Field Microph
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XXII List of Abbreviations K KDP po
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Introduction 1. Introduction to Aco
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of noise have been the subject of c
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in order to understand how objectiv
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A Brief 2. A Brief History of Acous
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of 350 m/s for the speed of sound [
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number and relative strength of its
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To his contemporaries, Koenig was p
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Probably the most important use of
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piezoelectric ceramic compositions
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surveys together [2.46]. Masking of
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ther of computer music, since he de
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Basic 3. Linear Basic Linear Acoust
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M average molecular weight n unit v
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a) b) S v.n ∆t ∆S V |v| ∆t n
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temperature, q =−κ∇T , (3.16)
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The equivalent density M/V is conse
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Basic Linear Acoustics 3.3 Equation
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Because any vector field may be dec
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The latter and (3.84), in a manner
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assumed to have no ambient motion,
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Because the friction associated wit
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3.5 Waves of Constant Frequency One
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3.5.4 Time Averages of Products Whe
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as well as symmetry considerations,
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The auxiliary internal variables th
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Then the transient at a distant pos
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ω ′ = 0, and this is consistent
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1.0 10 -1 10 -2 10 -3 10 -4 10 -5 A
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This yields the interpretation that
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direction of propagation when a pla
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so the time-averaged incident energ
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Although the simple result of (3.31
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ut, also in keeping with the linear
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equation, the two differential equa
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Rodrigues relation, one has �1
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for the derivative.) In the asympto
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The differential scattering cross s
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elow) is F(t) = (2c) 1/2 �t −
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0.5 0 -0.5 -1.0 -1.5 0 Y0(η) (π/2
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is the Wronskian for the Bessel and
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The function qS is termed the sourc
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The appropriate identification for
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where jℓ is the spherical Bessel
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this subtlety taken into account, o
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U(x) Basic Linear Acoustics 3.15 Wa
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is ordinarily valid. With these ass
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along rays. These can be regarded a
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A(x0) x0 A(x) Fig. 3.53 Sketch of a
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possible, and one where neither the
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which is independent of the z-coord
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[3.108], and Carslaw [3.109]. In th
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where C(X)andS(X) are the Fresnel i
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Fig. 3.60 Characteristic diffractio
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of elastic solids, Trans. Camb. Phi
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3.101 J.B. Keller: Geometrical acou
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114 Part A Propagation of Sound Par
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Underwater 5. Underwater Acoustics
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5.1 Ocean Acoustic Environment The
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Long-Range Propagation Paths Figure
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tal direction, there is no loss ass
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equivalent circuit, as shown in Fig
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Attenuation á (dB/km) 1000 100 10
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5.2.5 Ambient Noise There are essen
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ubble natural acoustic resonance ω
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a bubbly medium (and for the simple
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As discussed, because detection inv
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(1/A)∇ 2 A ≪ K 2 )sothat(5.34)
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water, where the deep sound channel
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egion in the form p(r, z) = ψ(r, z
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5.4.6 Propagation and Transmission
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tegration interval. The source puls
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5.6 SONAR Array Processing Signal p
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former output is: �∞ b(θ,t) =
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Fig. 5.37 Angle-versus-time represe
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5.7 Active SONAR Processing Depth M
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a factor when there is a reverberan
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depth measurements that correspond
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along the cross-shelf track taken b
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time as a result of multiple paths,
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technique is very sensitive, and ex
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Fig. 5.57a,b Typical echogram obtai
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Frequency (Hz) 150 100 50 0 0 a) b)
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out. These data allow for study of
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5.59 G. Raleigh, J.M. Cioffi: Spati
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Physical 6. Physical Acou Acoustics
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where I is the intensity of the sou
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Wave velocity The wall exerts a dow
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destructively interfered with one a
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or: � � p2 � rms SPL = 10 log
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6.1.4 Wave Propagation in Solids Si
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where c is again the wave speed and
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measured. Some resonances are cause
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as 50 µmto5µm through one oscilla
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the number of false positives and m
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with the small mass), and frequency
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Laser Lens 1 Circular aperture Fig.
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Ground ring Insulator Sample Resist
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Energy ratio 1.0 0.8 0.6 0.4 Calcul
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terms. In this equation γ is the r
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directly. The nonlinearity paramete
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Thermoacoust 7. Thermoacoustics The
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Table 7.1 The acoustic-electric ana
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walls of the pores. (Positive G ind
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a) b) c) C reso d) δtherm e) p 0 U
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a) b) UA,l c) d) E 0 Q A Q A TA TA
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tor. This eliminates the need to le
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to this consumption of acoustic pow
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The traditional Stirling refrigerat
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Washington 1986) pp. 550-554, Softw
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258 Part B Physical and Nonlinear A
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Acoustics 9. Acoustics in Halls for
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parameters, so we can assist in bui
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weeks or even years is less reliabl
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9.3.1 Reverberation Time Reverberan
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selected). A distance different fro
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ing sound, as will naturally be exp
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of the sound fields. Consequently,
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e derived from interrupted noise de
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Acoustics in Halls for Speech and M
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espectively, can be calculated from
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ated by the architects. However, on
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of C and G. However, as all the ind
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F b d F n I S Fb Fn S d F n/F b d/d
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HS S èn ã d0 P0 rn Position of ey
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Time T (s) 2.5 2 1.5 1 5 10 15 Acou
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floor can be tilted to reduce volum
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ÄLcurv (dB) 10 8 6 4 2 0 -2 -4 -6
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Seating capacity 2662 1 915 + 324 2
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4 3 2 1 Acoustics in Halls for Spee
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cially in auditoria with T values l
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esonance (AR)andmultichannel reverb
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Concert 10. Concert Hall Acoustics
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Concert Hall Acoustics Based on Sub
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0 0 Concert Hall Acoustics Based on
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mately by Concert Hall Acoustics Ba
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10.1.5 Specialization of Cerebral H
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The other (n − 1) bits indicated
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As for the conflicting requirements
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have mainly been concerned with tem
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a) c) S S -4.3 -2.8 -2.0 -3.5 -3dB
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a model of the auditory-brain syste
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Building 11. Building Acou Acoustic
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Pressure Maximum Minimum 0 D Distan
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Table 11.1 Absorption coefficients
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Absorption coefficient α 1 0 Frequ
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is of key importance in rooms where
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Table 11.4 Transmission loss and ST
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TL of wall - (TL of door, window or
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Table 11.7 Generalized noise reduct
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Masking sound pressure level (dB) 5
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As for the room criterion (RC) meth
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11.5 Noise Control Methods for Buil
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Neoprene pads (30 durometer) with a
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Concrete Caulk around perimeter Vib
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Trim board to conceal gap (fasten o
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Gypsum board partition (as schedule
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Double-layer ribbed or waffle neopr
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11.6 Acoustical Privacy in Building
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Table 11.9 AI,SIIandPIforopenplanof
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Electronic sound masking in plenum
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E 1179 Standard Specification for S
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430 Part D Hearing and Signal Proce
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Psychoacoust 13. Psychoacoustics Ps
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Absolute threshold (dB SPL) 100 90
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the signal. By using this off-cente
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is as a crude indicator of the exci
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Relative response (dB) 100 90 80 70
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In a variation of this procedure, t
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Level of matching noise (dB) 100 90
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13.4 Temporal Processing in the Aud
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Most models include an initial stag
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The components were either uniforml
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(Frequency DL)/ERBN 0.2 0.1 0.05 0.
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elaborate place models have been pr
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13.6 Timbre Perception 13.6.1 Time-
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the duplex theory of sound localiza
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harmonic (by shifting the frequency
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sive. While some studies have been
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sentences (see Fig. 13.20). They va
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components is usually only perceive
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References 13.1 ISO 389-7: Acoustic
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13.74 D. Ronken: Monaural detection
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asymmetric function, J. Acoust. Soc
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13.211 J. Vliegen, A.J. Oxenham: Se
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534 Part E Music, Speech, Electroac
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Page 620 and 621: 616 Part E Music, Speech, Electroac
Page 672 and 673: The 16. The Human Human Voice in Sp
Page 674 and 675: uation, the effect of gravity is in
Page 676 and 677: piratory muscles (the internal inte
Page 678 and 679: Mean Ps (cm H2O) 50 40 30 20 10 0 D
Page 680 and 681: Glottal flow Closed Opening Open Cl
Page 682 and 683: Transglottal airflow (l/s) 0.4 0.2
Page 684 and 685: Mean spectrum level (dB) -30 -40 -5
Page 686 and 687: 20 10 0 -10 -20 -30 -40 -50 0 i y u
Page 688 and 689: Mean level (dB) 0 -10 -20 -30 -40 1
Page 690 and 691: This topic was addressed by Ladefog
Page 692 and 693: Fig. 16.29 Acoustic consequences of
Page 694 and 695: Bass i e u Alto Tenor o ε œ æ Th
Page 696 and 697: 100 80 60 40 20 0 -20 100 80 60 40
Page 698 and 699: tours for [� ]and[Ù ] sampled at
Page 700 and 701: Rapp [16.100] asked three native sp
Page 702 and 703: Utterance command T0 T3 Accent comm
Page 704 and 705: The # symbol indicates the possibil
Page 706 and 707: Second formant frequency (Hz) 2500
Page 708 and 709: tional rather than absolute (à la
Page 710 and 711: 16.7 P. Ladefoged, M.H. Draper, D.
Page 712 and 713: esonance imaging: Vowels, J. Acoust
Page 714 and 715: 16.139 A. Eriksson: Aspects of Swed
Page 716 and 717: Computer 17. Computer Mu Music This
Page 718 and 719: Quantum step Amplitude Quantization
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Some might notice that linear inter
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pers, textbooks, patents, etc. Furt
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0:00.0 0.5 0 Computer Music 17.3 Ad
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(0,0) (0,1) (1,1) (0,2) (1,2) (0,3)
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synthesizing vocoder. The main diff
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x(n) + z -1 z -1 Scattering junctio
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230 Hz FOF 1100 Hz FOF 1700 Hz FOF
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0 y + - Computer Music 17.8 Physica
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-1 (1-ß )×length Velocity + Veloc
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0 -30 (dB) -60 0 1.5 3 4.5 (kHz) Fi
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17.10 Composition The history of co
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and variance of the features can be
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17.20 J.L. Kelly Jr., C.C. Lochbaum
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Audio 18. Audio and Electroacoustic
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Alexander Graham Bell filed his pat
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on magnetic stripes. A common arran
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60 40 20 0 SPL-sound pressure level
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Interaural intensity difference (dB
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with equalization, without incurrin
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Fig. 18.8 Sine wave with crossover
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18.3.8 Dynamic Range Dynamic range
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Directly actuated type Diaphragm ty
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effective pickup pattern of the arr
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attempts to apply complementary com
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Most of the issues relating to spea
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nificant design considerations. At
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Some appreciation of the performanc
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pre-digital reverberators were elec
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and ‘s’ in English text - may b
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content of rest of the signal spect
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cross the head, in opposite directi
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18.2 J. Sterne: The Audible Past (D
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18.71 T. Sporer: Creating, assessin
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786 Part F Biological and Medical A
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Medical 21. Medical Acous Acoustics
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21.1 Introduction to Medical Acoust
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Auscultation location Right & left
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portance. The Strouhal number has b
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Fig. 21.3 Phono-cardiograph transdu
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Amplitude 8 6 4 2 0 -2 -4 -6 Displa
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λ1 = c1 / fus θ1 λ2 = c2 / fus
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lood flow can be resolved if the si
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vided in the image thickness direct
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not as predicted, because the wave
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Fig. 21.18a,b Quadrature Doppler de
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a) b) c) 100 0 V mV 10 0 a = 13 a =
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Ultrasound contact gel Position enc
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a) 10 cm b) c) 10 cm Fig. 21.32a-c
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a) Pin B Pin A Ultrasound line b) M
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Organ Patient Ultrasound transducer
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systems cannot tell the difference
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40 µm can be resolved. For a 10 kH
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a) b) c) d) Medical Acoustics 21.4
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Fig. 21.54 Doppler spectral wavefor
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10 20 30 10 20 30 Pre-exercise B-mo
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Vibrations in a punctured artery De
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the veins and diffuse into the inte
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21.5.3 Agitated Saline and Patent F
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transported by those cells and/or r
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1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 Relative power
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High intensity focused ultrasound h
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a) b) c) Fig. 21.74a-c B-mode imagi
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provided simple metrics for the lik
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thickness of the carotid arteries,
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Structural 22. Structural Acoustics
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Structural Acoustics and Vibrations
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Magnitude (arb. units) 1.4 1.2 1.0
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This does not include the case wher
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the mass matrix is taken to be cons
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Magnitude (dB) -10 -30 -50 0 1 2 3
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where D(ω) = ω 4 − 2iω 3�
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form y(x, t) = � Φn(x)qn(t) . (2
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first to solve the wave equation (2
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5 3 1 -1 -3 -5 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
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conditions at each end) are necessa
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from which we can derive through (2
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In this case, the eigenfrequencies
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of radiation modes and their link w
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Finally, the displacement is ˜ξ(x
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notes the value of this eigenmode a
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Pm = ˙Q H [Rs + Ra] ˙Q , (22.262)
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where and Ra = 2ζaω0 M Z(s) = zL
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Radiated Power. The mean acoustic p
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(22.318) can be written ξ(x, y, t)
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Denoting the eigenfrequencies and e
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Magnitude (arb. units) 3 2 1 0 -1 -
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for any real symmetric tensor Xij.
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F(N) 1 0.5 0 -0.5 -1 -1 -0.8 -0.6 -
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whose solution is θ1 = A cos ωτ.
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4.5 3.5 2.5 1.5 A 0.5 0 0.5 1.0 1.5
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Equations (22.423) are usually writ
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3. As the amplitude reaches the top
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Shallow Spherical Shells and Plates
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22.20 L. Cremer, M. Heckl: Structur
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Noise Noise is discussed in terms o
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where the overbars represent time a
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Typical outdoor setting A-weighted
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90 dB(A)” is widely used, and imp
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Microphone, amplifier and A/D conve
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When each segment of the measuremen
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found from � LW = Lp + 10 log A +
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surement method is the ultimate use
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An intensity analyzer is more compl
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23.2.5 Criteria for Noise Emissions
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Table 23.5 Table of limit values fr
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a) Air flows freely to rotor Weak t
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Static efficiency normalized to its
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ful applications. Good results are
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Table 23.8 Crossover speeds for var
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Reduction of airplane engine noise
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A variety of materials are used to
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∆LF (dB) 0 -10 -20 α -30 0.05 0.
Page 994 and 995:
Absorption coefficient 1.0 0.8 0.6
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high enough that there is little so
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23.4.4 Criteria for Noise Immission
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Table 23.10 (cont.) Some features o
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Noise 23.4 Noise and the Receiver 1
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view of administrative procedures r
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provides recommendations for a foll
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sound power levels of noise sources
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23.68 ISO: ISO 9296:1988 Acoustics
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in impedance tubes - Part 2: Transf
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23.194 Commission of the European C
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1022 Part H Engineering Acoustics P
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Sound 25. Intens Sound Intensity So
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Under such conditions the intensity
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a) Pressure and particle velocity 0
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τ is a dummy time variable. The ca
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Error in intensity (dB) 5 0 -5 -10
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8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 -1 -2 -3 Error du
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crophones are calibrated with a pis
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Sound power level (dB re 1 pW) 72 7
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it is relatively straightforward si
Page 1064 and 1065:
intensity normal to the source. Thi
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25.9 W. Maysenhölder: The reactive
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25.77 ISO: ISO 11205 Acoustics - No
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Optical 27. Optical Methods Metho f
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course also present in ordinary hol
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Optical Methods for Acoustics and V
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50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450
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a) b) Optical Methods for Acoustics
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nm 1000 0 -1000 150 y (mm) 100 50 O
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Laser Optical Methods for Acoustics
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References 27.1 E.F.F. Chladni: Die
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27.75 E.-L.Johansson, L. Benckert,
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About the Authors Iskander Akhatov
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Neville H. Fletcher Chapter F.19 Au
Page 1134 and 1135:
Brian C. J. Moore Chapter D.13 Univ
Page 1136 and 1137:
Detailed Contents List of Abbreviat
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3.8.3 Acoustic Power ..............
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4.8.3 Typical Speed of Sound Profil
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7.3 Engines .......................
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10 Concert Hall Acoustics Based on
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13.4 Temporal Processing in the Aud
Page 1148 and 1149:
15.2.5 String-Bridge-Body Coupling
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19.6 Birds ........................
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22.4.5 Combinations of Elementary S
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24.8 Overall View on Microphone Cal
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Subject Index 3 dB bandwidth 463 A
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British Medical Ultrasound Society
Page 1160 and 1161:
electric circuit analogues - acoust
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hyperspeech 703 hypospeech 703 I IA
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- participation factors 909 - stiff
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- musical instruments 541 - musical
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- nonlinear vibrations 957 - plate
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subjective preference theory 353 su
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Introduction to Acoustics

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