Handbook of Turbomachinery Second Edition Revised - Ventech!

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Pressure-Sensitive Paint Using the pressure-sensitive paint (PSP) technique, film-cooling effectiveness can be measured on turbine vane surfaces [123, 124]. Nitrogen gas is used to simulate film-cooling flow providing an oxygen concentration map corresponding to an effectiveness map by the mass transfer analogy. PSP technique is based on oxygen-quenched photoluminescence. Photoluminescence is a property of some compounds (active component of PSP) to emit light after being illuminated by a suitable light source. The emitted light intensity is related to the pressure of test fluid containing oxygen—for example, the blue wavelength (450 nm) can be used to excite the active molecules with the return signal in the yellow wavelength (600 nm). To detect and record the emitted light, which contains both pressure and concentration information, a filter and a CCD camera can be used. In addition to measuring the static pressure distribution at the test plate, the oxygen sensitivity is used to indicate oxygen concentration in the gas mixture. Nitrogen gas is heated to the temperature of the free stream to eliminate possible errors related to a difference in temperature. It is then injected through the film-cooling holes into the main flow. The mass concentration of oxygen in the nitrogen–air mixture downstream from the point of injection is measured to obtain film effectiveness by using the mass transfer analogy. The mass fraction of the tracer gas (oxygen) in the mixture near the wall surface is related to the adiabatic wall temperature for the analogous heat-transfer situation. In the referenced study [124] the main stream contains approximately 79% nitrogen and the cooling flow contains approximately 100% nitrogen. The film effectiveness can be expressed by oxygen concentrations, which can be measured by the PSP. The highest (100%) concentration of nitrogen (0% of oxygen) should be expected inside the film-cooling hole. The test setup of the PSP application to obtain film effectiveness includes a test vane, a CCD camera, and light sources. The test vane, made of stainless steel and coated with PSP, is mounted at the middle (for viewing the leading edge and the suction surface) or at the mid-left position (for viewing the pressure surface) in the cascade. Transparent windows are located immediately upstream and downstream of the cascade. The CCD camera is mounted in front of these windows to view the vane surfaces from four positions as shown in Fig. 30—two for viewing the pressure surface (camera positions 1 and 2); one for viewing the leading edge (camera position 3); and one for viewing the suction surface (camera position 4). In this particular study, the data obtained by viewing from camera position 1 were used to validate data taken viewed from camera position 2, which contained information for the entire pressure surface. Three halogen lamps, Copyright © 2003 Marcel Dekker, Inc.
Figure 30 Application of PSP for film effectiveness mapping. located around the camera, provided the light source for each of the camera positions. The images of luminescence intensity distribution from the nozzle surfaces, recorded by the CCD camera, are originally gray scaled. A data reduction program compared the recorded intensity values with the calibration data to obtain surface pressure and film effectiveness distributions. For the PSP film-cooling test, four images are required: a dark image (light off, wind off); a reference image (wind off, light on); an air injection image (wind on, light on, hot air injection); and a nitrogen injection image (wind on, light on, hot nitrogen injection). Hot refers to the temperature of the main stream, about 170 8F (77 8C) and cold means the reference temperature, controlled at 70 8F (21 8C). The air injection image contains information of surface static pressure only, while the nitrogen injection image contains both the surface static pressure and the oxygen concentration information. The PSP is also sensitive to the surface temperature. Therefore, the nozzles are allowed to stabilize at the free-stream temperature. By obtaining ratios of intensities of the described four images, the oxygen concentration on the airfoil surface downstream from the injection can be separated from the pressure distribution. Adjusted images provide the whole picture of the airfoil surface viewed with detailed qualitative and quantitative data of local cooling effectiveness. Indirect Turbulence Measurement The most difficult requirement in a turbine heat-transfer experiment is to reproduce the character of the actual engine free-stream turbulence. The Copyright © 2003 Marcel Dekker, Inc.
Page 1 and 2:
D E K K E R Handbook of Turbomachin
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MECHANICAL ENGINEERING A Series of
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61 Computer-Aided Simulation in Rai
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127 Designing for Product Sound Qua
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Preface to the Second Edition The o
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Preface to the Second Edition Prefa
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Contributors Nathan G. Adams The Bo
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1 Introduction Earl Logan, Jr.*, an
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HISTORICAL BACKGROUND Earl Logan, J
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MECHANICAL AND THERMAL DESIGN CONSI
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Figure 1 Cross-section showing the
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Figure 2 Turboprop engine, TPE 331-
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Figure 4 Auxiliary power unit, APU1
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Durability. The mechanical and ther
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with time during flight. Such a typ
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experience and existing similar des
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adverse pressure gradient against w
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and its attachments. A substantial
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Figure 9 Typical high-pressure turb
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and the measurement of local heat-t
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due to cyclic operation. In additio
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the steady and transient conditions
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Table 3(a) Steps in a Three-Dimensi
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Figure 16 Schematic Goodman diagram
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occur due to particles of unburned
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pressures at critical points. These
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1. Ceramics are subject to ‘‘in
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with Transient Tests and Surface Co
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Overall engine performance goals tr
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Much of the complexity of turbomach
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End-wall boundary layers can also h
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pressure at the wake centerline. Th
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the same vaneless diffuser and shro
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from internal cooling passages, thr
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Further downstream, the wake was ev
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to its original position. This unst
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cooling film was found to trip the
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shroud static pressure and the exit
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stage in the design process allows
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Flow Physics Modeling Modeling of t
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passage to the next, assuming that
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The next step in modeling accuracy
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tend to be large, due to the necess
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Navier-Stokes equations are time-ma
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To satisfy these requirements, it i
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are discussed by a number of author
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source code, and to assign each seg
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selected locations in the flow path
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of the component designers must be
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Trends in Flow Modeling Capabilitie
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optimize the flow behavior. The eff
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20. D. Eckardt, ‘‘Flow Field An
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49. K. R. Kirtley, ‘‘An Algebra
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INTRODUCTION 3 Turbine Gas-Path Hea
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Figure 1 Maximum turbine rotor inle
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Figure 2 Intersecting S1 and S2 sur
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determination. Nothing in the simpl
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e well matched with the engine. The
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case different forms of the popular
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volume will be equal to the accumul
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Figure 9 Nusselt number vs. vane su
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Furthermore, to keep computer time
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Figure 12 Comparison of three turbu
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and small and cooled and uncooled t
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Figure 15 Miniature heat flux gauge
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Figure 17 Time resolved heat transf
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Figure 19 Surface pressure changes
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NONUNIFORM INLET FLOW All gas turbi
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Figure 22 Typical distributions of
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4. Better instrumentation for heat-
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24. R. H. Ni, ‘‘A Multiple Grid
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4 Selection of a Gas Turbine Coolin
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Re L ¼ rVL=m—Reynolds number bas
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(1,300 8F). But modern gas turbines
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during engine operation are compati
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Figure 3 Airfoil cooling techniques
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expected to increase this limit to
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1. Reduce the effect of main-stream
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P? is total inlet pressure. Tc=T? i
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thereby increasing both the skin-fr
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After four decades of advancement i
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correspondingly high coolant-side t
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component. Use of a hot cascade for
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nozzle vanes is limited by their ox
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Figure 9 Typical turbine hot sectio
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important factor to consider for tr
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Figure 10 Evolution of nozzle geome
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the exit of the combustor section f
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Figure 12 Inlet turbulence effect o
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in heat transfer as the Reynolds nu
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easonably well using correlations e
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in the section on blade cooling tha
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mass flow rate (e.g., M ¼ 1 for a
Page 187 and 188: holes. Cooling hole pattern is an i
Page 189 and 190: coolant flow with the main stream,
Page 191 and 192: above equation assumes a constant f
Page 193 and 194: Figure 15 Definition of film-coolin
Page 195 and 196: edistribution of the external heat-
Page 197 and 198: Three-Dimensional Effects The three
Page 199 and 200: In order to achieve the bulk metal
Page 201 and 202: coefficient is given by Nud ¼ hd=k
Page 203 and 204: Where G ¼ 2:24ðw=tÞ 0:1 ðReeÞ
Page 205 and 206: pressure drop. The 608/458 V-shaped
Page 207 and 208: Some of the studies have found that
Page 209 and 210: of the cooling air and the turning
Page 211 and 212: Figure 20 Impingement geometry defi
Page 213 and 214: correlated by Nu a d ¼ 0:63ðGd=m
Page 215 and 216: tangentially to the inner wall, beh
Page 217 and 218: The effectiveness of a suction surf
Page 219 and 220: vortex structure. Their studies sho
Page 221 and 222: Figure 23 Effect of preswirler pres
Page 223 and 224: component to the cooling air that c
Page 225 and 226: axial gap. A static pressure variat
Page 227 and 228: Weight, cost, and complexity constr
Page 229 and 230: Figure 28 Effectiveness of liner co
Page 231 and 232: thickness. A problem this poses is
Page 233 and 234: portion of the hole has been shown
Page 235 and 236: unacceptable engine performance pen
Page 237: analysis, in order to provide accur
Page 241 and 242: thermocouple positioned close to th
Page 243 and 244: spray-painted black (Hallcrest, BB-
Page 245 and 246: Figure 32 Schematics of a hot casca
Page 247 and 248: the turbine static temperature (rot
Page 249 and 250: Figure 33 Experimental rig for inve
Page 251 and 252: their color when exposed to higher
Page 253 and 254: margins defined within each discipl
Page 255 and 256: them. The larger gas-path divergenc
Page 257 and 258: Figure 36 Blade-cooling selection d
Page 259 and 260: 8. B. Barry, Turbine Blade Cooling:
Page 261 and 262: 40. A. K. Tolpadi and M. E. Crawfor
Page 263 and 264: 73. R. S. Abhari, ‘‘Comparison
Page 265 and 266: 106. J. M. Owen and R. H. Rogers, F
Page 267 and 268: 138. I. Egorov, G. Kretinin, I. Les
Page 269 and 270: integrity (stress levels) will have
Page 271 and 272: Figure 1 Instant entropy contours o
Page 273 and 274: Aerodynamic Interaction (Unsteady L
Page 275 and 276: Figure 3 Pitchwise time-averaged en
Page 277 and 278: The above considerations are all fo
Page 279 and 280: lades, the wavelength of the distur
Page 281 and 282: forcing and damping, and hence the
Page 283 and 284: frequency and its higher harmonics
Page 285 and 286: The two-cell pattern with a relativ
Page 287 and 288: Figure 9 Typical blade flutter boun
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field is generated to satisfy the t
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Figure 11 Instant static pressure c
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Figure 12 Calculated instantaneous
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Figure 14 Time-space static pressur
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one period Tp (neglecting change of
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It should be noted that the effects
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There are some further points to no
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Figure 17 Flow around an NACA-65 ai
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(11) for a simple case]: Where WA
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Regardless whether loosely coupled
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Several methods have been developed
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significant difference is introduce
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losses, but it may affect to a mini
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when we refine a mesh in an unstead
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8. W. S. Barankiewicz and M. D. Hat
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6 Fundamentals of Compressor Design
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Figure 3 AlliedSignal 331 turboprop
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each of the selected radii. The pro
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components of gas velocity upstream
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Observe that each of the curves for
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The conservation of angular momentu
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allowable static pressure ratio of
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Figure 7 Boundary layers and wakes
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component that is perpendicular to
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Figure 10 (a) Deflection of flow of
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increase in the downstream pressure
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Mach number at a compressor outlet
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Figure 12 Sketch of flow surface an
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useful shapes and orientations of b
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where G and oa are constant along a
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There is a good reason for this sit
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Projected Shape in Meridional Plane
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inherent flow range of the impeller
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compressors. Multistage centrifugal
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turbines. In these designs the high
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Corrections for Streamline Curvatur
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Preparation of Maps Once the losses
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that circumferential gradients meas
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Nastran, which was developed by NAS
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tests. One should take pains to pro
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e predicted in advance. Total press
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Cv Coefficient of heat at constant
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15. S. Lieblein, J. Basic Eng., Tra
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INTRODUCTION 7 Fundamentals of Turb
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Figure 1 Cross sections of generic
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espectively. Radial-inflow turbines
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Figure 4 Typical rotor blade shapes
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Figure 6 The expansion process acro
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the average for the gas flowing thr
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etween the velocity diagram and the
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gas dynamics relation p 00 p ¼ T 0
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Figure 9 Variations in turbine velo
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pressure, inlet losses are usually
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diffuser recovery, defined as Rp ¼
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different turbines easier, dimensio
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where and y ¼ T 0 in TSTD d ¼ p0
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sizing exercises where the details
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where Rth is the Reynolds number ba
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order to determine the overall turb
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The classical approach to satisfyin
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clearance. Since tip clearance repr
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turbine with an effective diffuser,
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atio ðp 0 in =pdisÞ is 3. The sta
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Automation of Calculations and Trad
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and for the rotor Zrotor ¼ ð0:1Þ
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the energy extracted and the rotor
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RADIAL-INFLOW TURBINE SIZING Differ
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interpolations from existing design
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Glassman [1], the optimum ratio of
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design fault in the radial-inflow t
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[27]. In order to avoid manufacturi
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The rotor exit critical velocity is
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The hub-to-tip radius ratio at the
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REFERENCES 1. A. J. Glassman (ed.),
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8 Steam Turbines Thomas H. McCloske
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Figure 3 Reciprocating steam engine
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This process began in the 1920s, al
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First Law of Thermodynamics The fir
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the amount of fuel burned and the p
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Figure 7 Rankine cycle temperature-
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The Mollier diagram is quite useful
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Figure 10 Theoretical Rankine cycle
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stages of the turbine is at a highe
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calculate the relevant thermodynami
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Figure 14 Steam leakage losses for
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can reveal nozzle and/or blade eros
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Figure 17 Enlarged portion of the M
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Traditionally, pressures have been
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Figure 21 Wetness thermodynamic los
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Figure 23 Radial steam turbine flow
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Figure 25 Percentage stage reaction
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The power output of the stage can b
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the LP turbines is split into paral
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Turbine Inlet Two stages in particu
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of 20%, which would cause excessive
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Figure 30 Typical low-pressure stea
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ductility and poor toughness, since
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‘‘tramp’’ elements to minim
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End Seals End seals or packing glan
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Drains Condensate can form during s
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Figure 32 Steam turbine blade roots
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Figure 34 Cross-section view of thr
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Figure 36 Interblade shroud and Tie
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Where The influence of notch sensit
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Similarly, LP turbine blades are su
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those made of steel. Note, however,
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esult, significant attention must b
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Figure 38 Centrifugal stresses on a
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Figure 39 Centrifugal bending stres
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onto the rotating blade. These can
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Vortex shedding from blade trailing
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Figure 42 Torsional coupled vibrati
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Figure 44 Stall flutter of low-pres
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Start-Stop Transients/Overspeeds La
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(4) ellipiticity, such as caused by
Page 519 and 520:
Figure 47 Campbell diagram (frequen
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Furthermore, in practice each manuf
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Figure 49 Modal diameters of a low-
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Figure 51 Three-dimensional computa
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Figure 52 Converging wedge and resu
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value as the operating value of uv/
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Lubrication Supply System Design De
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Figure 56 Steam turbine oil system
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The main oil reservoir is located b
Page 537 and 538:
Although a light oil does provide a
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temperatures are suspected as reaso
Page 541 and 542:
There is no fixed or absolute value
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pivots incorporated in this bearing
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covers and doors. Pipe scale, rust,
Page 547 and 548:
Figure 63 Mechanical hydraulic cont
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Figure 64 Steam turbine electro-hyd
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Figure 65 Steam turbine electro-hyd
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generator rotor moment of inertia h
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the turbine against overspeed. This
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an additional electronic overspeed
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Figure 68 Steam turbine protective
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3. Need for better understanding of
Page 563 and 564:
REFERENCES 1. J. C. Zink, ‘‘Ste
Page 565 and 566:
No. TWDPS-1, The American Society o
Page 567 and 568:
58. A. V. Sarlashkar and T. C. T. L
Page 569 and 570:
81. IEEE Guide for Abnormal Frequen
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Atlanta, GA, Oct. 18-22, 1992, PWR-
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Performance Enhancement Program, he
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of the design process toward achiev
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procedure capable of addressing mul
Page 579 and 580:
to achieve a specific target pressu
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objective was to minimize the downs
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more closely represents the largest
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temperature by forming a thin film
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such as the one described here. For
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k is the thermal conductivity of th
Page 591 and 592:
through finite differences. Mathema
Page 593 and 594:
Figure 4 Comparison of blade cross-
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integration of multiple disciplines
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17. S. S. Talya, ‘‘Multidiscipl
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INTRODUCTION 10 Rotordynamic Consid
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Figure 1 (c) AlliedSignal 331 turbo
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Figure 2 Rotor system displacements
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Figure 3 Elliptic lateral whirl. av
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vibration (either forward or backwa
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Figure 6 The Laval-Jeffcott rotor.
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are 1808 out of phase (i.e., the be
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this graph is quite simple; however
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included on these types of graphs b
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on the shaft is zero. Thus, the ste
Page 619 and 620:
are uðtÞ ¼e zeott uo cos ott þ
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satisfies the inequality O < ot 1
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Figure 16 Laval-Jeffcott rotor tran
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Figure 18 Whirl speed map: Laval-Je
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Figure 20 Laval-Jeffcott rotor: ste
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Figure 22 Typical precessional mode
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Figure 24 Examples of flexible disk
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ackward modes, however, involve con
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Figure 29 Steady unbalance response
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assist in attenuating high vibratio
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properly sizing the damper, a highl
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Figure 31 Gas turbine schematic and
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Flexible Disk If the frequency of a
Page 645 and 646:
motion for each subsegment to form
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Figure 35 Whirl speed map—straddl
Page 649 and 650:
Figure 37 Rotor-bearing-support str
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DESIGN STRATEGIES AND PROCEDURES Ro
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Figure 38 Straddle mounted rotor. (
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Figure 39 Unbalance response: strad
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Figure 40 Double overhung rotor—d
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earing supports are reduced. The th
Page 661 and 662:
and also increases the critical spe
Page 663 and 664:
Examples of structure modes couplin
Page 665 and 666:
REFERENCES 1. D. Childs, Turbomachi
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section is intended to place today
Page 669 and 670:
pressure-fed propellant systems. Hi
Page 671 and 672:
normally be considered a very small
Page 673 and 674:
increase of required suction perfor
Page 675 and 676:
displaced by the F-1 oxidizer pump
Page 677 and 678:
exposure may be subjected to imping
Page 679 and 680:
the exhaust duct. Sized to create s
Page 681 and 682:
excess of 6,000 psi for consumption
Page 683 and 684:
lifetime. With very few exceptions,
Page 685 and 686:
using hydrocarbon fuel combustion p
Page 687 and 688:
can yield noticeable savings in req
Page 689 and 690:
Figure 3 Rocket engine system schem
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Figure 6 Staged combustion system,
Page 693 and 694:
each stage. The term C0 represents
Page 695 and 696:
Figure 10 Some representative turbo
Page 697 and 698:
emembered that the second (and any
Page 699 and 700:
the greatest demands on turbopump p
Page 701 and 702:
momentum exchange between working f
Page 703 and 704:
Figure 13 Arrangement of various tu
Page 705 and 706:
pressure levels. As long as combust
Page 707 and 708:
Figure 14 Approxmate values of pump
Page 709 and 710:
liquid rocket engine systems, and e
Page 711 and 712:
above becomes a factor. This statem
Page 713 and 714:
We can then state (correctly) that,
Page 715 and 716:
Figure 15c Typical 2-D centrifugal
Page 717 and 718:
have seen that the flow rate throug
Page 719 and 720:
somewhat smaller magnitude of vecto
Page 721 and 722:
general indicator. Nss will give us
Page 723 and 724:
U ¼ rotor tangential velocity. By
Page 725 and 726:
and pump flow derived from the engi
Page 727 and 728:
In addition to shaft seals, shaft b
Page 729 and 730:
should be understood that the optim
Page 731 and 732:
stable operation is assured. In som
Page 733 and 734:
From Eq. (16) an impeller radial ou
Page 735 and 736:
Figure 18 Examples of centrifugal p
Page 737 and 738:
tional to clearance distance) with
Page 739 and 740:
I would like to conclude this secti
Page 741 and 742:
generally result in lower pump hydr
Page 743 and 744:
Figure 15h Cross-section of a typic
Page 745 and 746:
solutions of Eq. (7) for both stage
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Figure 15k H-Q characteristics for
Page 749 and 750:
Figure 15l Typical inducer configur
Page 751 and 752:
camber) is proportionally lower. Th
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Figure 22 Single-stage impulse turb
Page 755 and 756:
the velocity ratio K, but in somewh
Page 757 and 758:
~V and ~n ¼ fluid velocity and con
Page 759 and 760:
Fig. 25. The nature of the flow in
Page 761 and 762:
Although shrouded centrifugal impel
Page 763 and 764:
is a parasitic device, whose flow r
Page 765 and 766:
apidly than does the inducer thrust
Page 767 and 768:
Figure 30 LH2 turbopump rotor mecha
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eplacement of a failed bearing with
Page 771 and 772:
shall see, contemporary rocket engi
Page 773 and 774:
needs of the aircraft gas turbine a
Page 775 and 776:
was increased due to engine upratin
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12 Turbomachinery Performance Testi
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istics. The more accurate the perfo
Page 781 and 782:
Inlet Distortion Most turbomachiner
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Gas Thermodynamic Properties Turbom
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ought to rest isentropically. Total
Page 787 and 788:
include not only the pressure chang
Page 789 and 790:
The circumferential placement of th
Page 791 and 792:
simply arithmetically averaging the
Page 793 and 794:
usually mounted in radial immersion
Page 795 and 796:
Figure 12(b) Radial flow angle prof
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Figure 15 Wake rake total pressure
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Figure 16 Blade-tip pressure traces
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Figure 18 Typical test rig schemati
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INSTRUMENTATION DESIGN CONSIDERATIO
Page 805 and 806:
Dynamic Pressure. Dynamic pressure
Page 807 and 808:
thermocouples. With care in constru
Page 809 and 810:
Figure 24 Typical two-dimensional f
Page 811 and 812:
Thermocouple lead wires should be i
Page 813 and 814:
Corrected Flow The flow rates used
Page 815 and 816:
pressure ratio [15]. It can be calc
Page 817 and 818:
SYMBOLS A Cross-section area Cd Dis
Page 819 and 820:
INTRODUCTION 13 Automotive Supercha
Page 821 and 822:
Figure 2 A Roots-type supercharger
Page 823 and 824:
The supercharger was in routine use
Page 825 and 826:
Table 1 Superchargers Versus Turboc
Page 827 and 828:
1960s, turbocharging was used by US
Page 829 and 830:
Roots Blower The Roots-type blower
Page 831 and 832:
speeds. The sound is caused by the
Page 833 and 834:
Figure 8b How the Ro-charger operat
Page 835 and 836:
The vanes in many designs are preve
Page 837 and 838:
Figure 11a Key components of the G-
Page 839 and 840:
Figure 11c G-Lader supercharger is
Page 841 and 842:
Figure 12b Schematic of centrifugal
Page 843 and 844:
Figure 14b Components of the typica
Page 845 and 846:
Turbine Design The turbine housing
Page 847 and 848:
inertia of the wheel assembly. Mini
Page 849 and 850:
Figure 18 (a) Turbocharger compress
Page 851 and 852:
Theoretically this efficiency is: o
Page 853 and 854:
The overall turbine efficiency incl
Page 855 and 856:
adjust the spring force to vary the
Page 857 and 858:
Figure 22b Two vanes are used to pr
Page 859 and 860:
However, the temperature has to be
Page 861 and 862:
air can reduce carbon monoxide and
Page 863 and 864:
Figure 25 (a) Schematic of the COMP
Page 865 and 866:
this plus the fact that the exhaust
Page 867 and 868:
14 Tesla Turbomachinery Warren Rice
Page 869 and 870:
press at the time of the invention
Page 871 and 872:
can be made to simplify the equatio
Page 873 and 874:
comparison of the results of variou
Page 875 and 876:
y composing them of nested cones ra
Page 877 and 878:
26. E. Bakke, ‘‘Theoretical and
Page 879 and 880:
61. M. Piesche, ‘‘Investigation
Page 881 and 882:
15 Hydraulic Turbines V. Dakshina M
Page 883 and 884:
Table 1 Variables of Interest in Tu
Page 885 and 886:
Figure 1 Variation of impeller shap
Page 887 and 888:
Figure 2 Flow and velocity componen
Page 889 and 890:
Figure 3 Schematic diagram of Pelto
Page 891 and 892:
shown in Fig. 5(see KadambiandPrasa
Page 893 and 894:
classified according to the directi
Page 895 and 896:
The manufacturers of hydraulic turb
Page 897 and 898:
The direction of the relative veloc
Page 899 and 900:
Table 3 Variation of Some Quantitie
Page 901 and 902:
denoted by hd. Thus the efficiency
Page 903 and 904:
Figure 14 Draft tube setting. same
Page 905:
REFERENCES 1. J. J. Fritz, Small an
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Handbook of Turbomachinery Second Edition Revised - Ventech!

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