Handbook of Turbomachinery Second Edition Revised - Ventech!

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more susceptible to temper embrittlement during service, even at the lower temperatures of operation. Casings Casing Design and Features Turbine casings (or shells) must contain the steam pressure and maintain support and alignment for the internal stationary components. Casings are designed to withstand temperature and pressure up to the maximum steam condition. Early designs of casings (prior to about 1963) were classic pressure vessel shapes with single-walled cylinders and hemispherical ends, together with a horizontal, bolted, flanged joint for access. The casings were designed to withstand steady-state pressure loads at high temperatures. Conservative design led to thick sections. As technology advanced, steam temperatures and pressures increased and more severe thermal transients were imposed on casings during startup, load changes, and shutdown. This led to the occurrence of fatigue, creep, and distortion. Turbine casing design has evolved over the years and casings are now multiple pressure vessels (for example, an inner and outer casing in the HP and IP cylinder, or a triple casing), allowing smaller pressure differentials and realizing thinner wall thickness and sections. These thinner sections allow for lower temperature drop across the casing section and thus lower thermal stresses. The exhaust steam flows back along the turbine axis through the space between casings to allow for quicker warming of the turbine during starts. LP casings may also be of multiple part design with the inner casing containing the diaphragms supports and the outer casing directing the exhaust to the condensers. Steam chests and valves were often integral to older turbine casings. Standard design practice now is to separate these components. However, the materials of construction and degradation of these components is similar to casings and, as a result, the methods for condition assessment of casings are also appropriate to steam chests and valves. Casing Materials of Construction In the 1940s casings were manufactured from C-Mo steels; by about 1947, CrMo and CrMoV steels were introduced to prevent graphitization. In the 1950s, the primary emphasis was on creep strength, and these early materials had poor creep-rupture ductility (and high notch sensitivity). High carbon levels were typical, as were relatively high contents of detrimental elements such as P, S, Sn, As, and Sb. Modern materials have strict controls on these Copyright © 2003 Marcel Dekker, Inc.
‘‘tramp’’ elements to minimize temper embrittlement. Lower carbon and sulfur levels reduce the likelihood of hot tearing during solidification of the castings. Common materials for HP and IP casings are 2 1 =4 Cr-1Mo, for temperatures up to 538 8C (10008F), and 1 =2 Cr- 1 =2 Mo- 1 =4 V, for temperatures up to 565 8C (1050 8F). For advanced steam conditions, modern HP and IP casings are often made of 9–12% Cr materials. In addition to ferritic steels, the Type 300 series stainless steels have been used for high-temperature applications. Castings are used in the higher-temperature HP and IP casings. In lower-temperature applications such as the nuclear HP shell, carbon steel castings may be used. LP turbines casings, which are significantly larger in size and operate at lower temperatures, are typically either fabricated or constructed of fabricated and cast components. Materials that are structurally sufficient for lower temperatures such as carbon steel plate may also be used. Casing Damage Mechanisms Major casing damage mechanisms include (1) creep, (2) thermal fatigue (low cycle), (3) creep-fatigue interactions, (4) embrittlement, and (5) flowaccelerated corrosion. In the majority of failures, there is evidence of more than one damage mechanism. Valves Valve Design and Features Valves control the flow rate of steam through the turbine. Key valves include Main stop valves. These valves primarily protect the turbine against overspeed, but may also regulate steam flow rate during startup. Stop and control valves regulate the flow of steam from the steam leads into the HP turbine [25]. Control or throttling valves. These valves control steam flow rate during operation. During startup, control valves are used to govern turbine speed and acceleration. Intercept valves. Intercept and reheat stop valves are used between the boiler reheater and the IP turbine inlet. Intercept valves are used to prevent overspeed from the steam stored in the reheater and connecting lines in the event of a large load reduction [26]. Copyright © 2003 Marcel Dekker, Inc.
Page 1 and 2:
D E K K E R Handbook of Turbomachin
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MECHANICAL ENGINEERING A Series of
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61 Computer-Aided Simulation in Rai
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127 Designing for Product Sound Qua
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Preface to the Second Edition The o
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Preface to the Second Edition Prefa
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Contributors Nathan G. Adams The Bo
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1 Introduction Earl Logan, Jr.*, an
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HISTORICAL BACKGROUND Earl Logan, J
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MECHANICAL AND THERMAL DESIGN CONSI
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Figure 1 Cross-section showing the
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Figure 2 Turboprop engine, TPE 331-
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Figure 4 Auxiliary power unit, APU1
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Durability. The mechanical and ther
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with time during flight. Such a typ
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experience and existing similar des
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adverse pressure gradient against w
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and its attachments. A substantial
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Figure 9 Typical high-pressure turb
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and the measurement of local heat-t
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due to cyclic operation. In additio
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the steady and transient conditions
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Table 3(a) Steps in a Three-Dimensi
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Figure 16 Schematic Goodman diagram
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occur due to particles of unburned
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pressures at critical points. These
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1. Ceramics are subject to ‘‘in
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with Transient Tests and Surface Co
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Overall engine performance goals tr
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Much of the complexity of turbomach
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End-wall boundary layers can also h
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pressure at the wake centerline. Th
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the same vaneless diffuser and shro
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from internal cooling passages, thr
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Further downstream, the wake was ev
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to its original position. This unst
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cooling film was found to trip the
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shroud static pressure and the exit
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stage in the design process allows
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Flow Physics Modeling Modeling of t
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passage to the next, assuming that
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The next step in modeling accuracy
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tend to be large, due to the necess
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Navier-Stokes equations are time-ma
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To satisfy these requirements, it i
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are discussed by a number of author
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source code, and to assign each seg
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selected locations in the flow path
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of the component designers must be
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Trends in Flow Modeling Capabilitie
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optimize the flow behavior. The eff
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20. D. Eckardt, ‘‘Flow Field An
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49. K. R. Kirtley, ‘‘An Algebra
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INTRODUCTION 3 Turbine Gas-Path Hea
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Figure 1 Maximum turbine rotor inle
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Figure 2 Intersecting S1 and S2 sur
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determination. Nothing in the simpl
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e well matched with the engine. The
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case different forms of the popular
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volume will be equal to the accumul
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Figure 9 Nusselt number vs. vane su
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Furthermore, to keep computer time
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Figure 12 Comparison of three turbu
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and small and cooled and uncooled t
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Figure 15 Miniature heat flux gauge
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Figure 17 Time resolved heat transf
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Figure 19 Surface pressure changes
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NONUNIFORM INLET FLOW All gas turbi
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Figure 22 Typical distributions of
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4. Better instrumentation for heat-
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24. R. H. Ni, ‘‘A Multiple Grid
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4 Selection of a Gas Turbine Coolin
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Re L ¼ rVL=m—Reynolds number bas
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(1,300 8F). But modern gas turbines
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during engine operation are compati
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Figure 3 Airfoil cooling techniques
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expected to increase this limit to
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1. Reduce the effect of main-stream
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P? is total inlet pressure. Tc=T? i
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thereby increasing both the skin-fr
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After four decades of advancement i
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correspondingly high coolant-side t
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component. Use of a hot cascade for
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nozzle vanes is limited by their ox
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Figure 9 Typical turbine hot sectio
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important factor to consider for tr
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Figure 10 Evolution of nozzle geome
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the exit of the combustor section f
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Figure 12 Inlet turbulence effect o
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in heat transfer as the Reynolds nu
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easonably well using correlations e
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in the section on blade cooling tha
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mass flow rate (e.g., M ¼ 1 for a
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holes. Cooling hole pattern is an i
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coolant flow with the main stream,
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above equation assumes a constant f
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Figure 15 Definition of film-coolin
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edistribution of the external heat-
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Three-Dimensional Effects The three
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In order to achieve the bulk metal
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coefficient is given by Nud ¼ hd=k
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Where G ¼ 2:24ðw=tÞ 0:1 ðReeÞ
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pressure drop. The 608/458 V-shaped
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Some of the studies have found that
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of the cooling air and the turning
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Figure 20 Impingement geometry defi
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correlated by Nu a d ¼ 0:63ðGd=m
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tangentially to the inner wall, beh
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The effectiveness of a suction surf
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vortex structure. Their studies sho
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Figure 23 Effect of preswirler pres
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component to the cooling air that c
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axial gap. A static pressure variat
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Weight, cost, and complexity constr
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Figure 28 Effectiveness of liner co
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thickness. A problem this poses is
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portion of the hole has been shown
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unacceptable engine performance pen
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analysis, in order to provide accur
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Figure 30 Application of PSP for fi
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thermocouple positioned close to th
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spray-painted black (Hallcrest, BB-
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Figure 32 Schematics of a hot casca
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the turbine static temperature (rot
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Figure 33 Experimental rig for inve
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their color when exposed to higher
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margins defined within each discipl
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them. The larger gas-path divergenc
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Figure 36 Blade-cooling selection d
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8. B. Barry, Turbine Blade Cooling:
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40. A. K. Tolpadi and M. E. Crawfor
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73. R. S. Abhari, ‘‘Comparison
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106. J. M. Owen and R. H. Rogers, F
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138. I. Egorov, G. Kretinin, I. Les
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integrity (stress levels) will have
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Figure 1 Instant entropy contours o
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Aerodynamic Interaction (Unsteady L
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Figure 3 Pitchwise time-averaged en
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The above considerations are all fo
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lades, the wavelength of the distur
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forcing and damping, and hence the
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frequency and its higher harmonics
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The two-cell pattern with a relativ
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Figure 9 Typical blade flutter boun
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field is generated to satisfy the t
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Figure 11 Instant static pressure c
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Figure 12 Calculated instantaneous
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Figure 14 Time-space static pressur
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one period Tp (neglecting change of
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It should be noted that the effects
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There are some further points to no
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Figure 17 Flow around an NACA-65 ai
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(11) for a simple case]: Where WA
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Regardless whether loosely coupled
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Several methods have been developed
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significant difference is introduce
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losses, but it may affect to a mini
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when we refine a mesh in an unstead
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8. W. S. Barankiewicz and M. D. Hat
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6 Fundamentals of Compressor Design
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Figure 3 AlliedSignal 331 turboprop
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each of the selected radii. The pro
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components of gas velocity upstream
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Observe that each of the curves for
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The conservation of angular momentu
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allowable static pressure ratio of
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Figure 7 Boundary layers and wakes
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component that is perpendicular to
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Figure 10 (a) Deflection of flow of
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increase in the downstream pressure
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Mach number at a compressor outlet
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Figure 12 Sketch of flow surface an
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useful shapes and orientations of b
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where G and oa are constant along a
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There is a good reason for this sit
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Projected Shape in Meridional Plane
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inherent flow range of the impeller
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compressors. Multistage centrifugal
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turbines. In these designs the high
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Corrections for Streamline Curvatur
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Preparation of Maps Once the losses
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that circumferential gradients meas
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Nastran, which was developed by NAS
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tests. One should take pains to pro
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e predicted in advance. Total press
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Cv Coefficient of heat at constant
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15. S. Lieblein, J. Basic Eng., Tra
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INTRODUCTION 7 Fundamentals of Turb
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Figure 1 Cross sections of generic
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espectively. Radial-inflow turbines
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Figure 4 Typical rotor blade shapes
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Figure 6 The expansion process acro
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the average for the gas flowing thr
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etween the velocity diagram and the
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gas dynamics relation p 00 p ¼ T 0
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Figure 9 Variations in turbine velo
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pressure, inlet losses are usually
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diffuser recovery, defined as Rp ¼
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different turbines easier, dimensio
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where and y ¼ T 0 in TSTD d ¼ p0
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sizing exercises where the details
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where Rth is the Reynolds number ba
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order to determine the overall turb
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The classical approach to satisfyin
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clearance. Since tip clearance repr
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turbine with an effective diffuser,
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atio ðp 0 in =pdisÞ is 3. The sta
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Automation of Calculations and Trad
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and for the rotor Zrotor ¼ ð0:1Þ
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the energy extracted and the rotor
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RADIAL-INFLOW TURBINE SIZING Differ
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interpolations from existing design
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Glassman [1], the optimum ratio of
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design fault in the radial-inflow t
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[27]. In order to avoid manufacturi
Page 431 and 432: The rotor exit critical velocity is
Page 433 and 434: The hub-to-tip radius ratio at the
Page 435 and 436: REFERENCES 1. A. J. Glassman (ed.),
Page 437 and 438: 8 Steam Turbines Thomas H. McCloske
Page 439 and 440: Figure 3 Reciprocating steam engine
Page 441 and 442: This process began in the 1920s, al
Page 443 and 444: First Law of Thermodynamics The fir
Page 445 and 446: the amount of fuel burned and the p
Page 447 and 448: Figure 7 Rankine cycle temperature-
Page 449 and 450: The Mollier diagram is quite useful
Page 451 and 452: Figure 10 Theoretical Rankine cycle
Page 453 and 454: stages of the turbine is at a highe
Page 455 and 456: calculate the relevant thermodynami
Page 457 and 458: Figure 14 Steam leakage losses for
Page 459 and 460: can reveal nozzle and/or blade eros
Page 461 and 462: Figure 17 Enlarged portion of the M
Page 463 and 464: Traditionally, pressures have been
Page 465 and 466: Figure 21 Wetness thermodynamic los
Page 467 and 468: Figure 23 Radial steam turbine flow
Page 469 and 470: Figure 25 Percentage stage reaction
Page 471 and 472: The power output of the stage can b
Page 473 and 474: the LP turbines is split into paral
Page 475 and 476: Turbine Inlet Two stages in particu
Page 477 and 478: of 20%, which would cause excessive
Page 479 and 480: Figure 30 Typical low-pressure stea
Page 481: ductility and poor toughness, since
Page 485 and 486: End Seals End seals or packing glan
Page 487 and 488: Drains Condensate can form during s
Page 489 and 490: Figure 32 Steam turbine blade roots
Page 491 and 492: Figure 34 Cross-section view of thr
Page 493 and 494: Figure 36 Interblade shroud and Tie
Page 495 and 496: Where The influence of notch sensit
Page 497 and 498: Similarly, LP turbine blades are su
Page 499 and 500: those made of steel. Note, however,
Page 501 and 502: esult, significant attention must b
Page 503 and 504: Figure 38 Centrifugal stresses on a
Page 505 and 506: Figure 39 Centrifugal bending stres
Page 507 and 508: onto the rotating blade. These can
Page 509 and 510: Vortex shedding from blade trailing
Page 511 and 512: Figure 42 Torsional coupled vibrati
Page 513 and 514: Figure 44 Stall flutter of low-pres
Page 515 and 516: Start-Stop Transients/Overspeeds La
Page 517 and 518: (4) ellipiticity, such as caused by
Page 519 and 520: Figure 47 Campbell diagram (frequen
Page 521 and 522: Furthermore, in practice each manuf
Page 523 and 524: Figure 49 Modal diameters of a low-
Page 525 and 526: Figure 51 Three-dimensional computa
Page 527 and 528: Figure 52 Converging wedge and resu
Page 529 and 530: value as the operating value of uv/
Page 531 and 532: Lubrication Supply System Design De
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Figure 56 Steam turbine oil system
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The main oil reservoir is located b
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Although a light oil does provide a
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temperatures are suspected as reaso
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There is no fixed or absolute value
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pivots incorporated in this bearing
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covers and doors. Pipe scale, rust,
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Figure 63 Mechanical hydraulic cont
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Figure 64 Steam turbine electro-hyd
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Figure 65 Steam turbine electro-hyd
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generator rotor moment of inertia h
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the turbine against overspeed. This
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an additional electronic overspeed
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Figure 68 Steam turbine protective
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3. Need for better understanding of
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REFERENCES 1. J. C. Zink, ‘‘Ste
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No. TWDPS-1, The American Society o
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58. A. V. Sarlashkar and T. C. T. L
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81. IEEE Guide for Abnormal Frequen
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Atlanta, GA, Oct. 18-22, 1992, PWR-
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Performance Enhancement Program, he
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of the design process toward achiev
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procedure capable of addressing mul
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to achieve a specific target pressu
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objective was to minimize the downs
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more closely represents the largest
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temperature by forming a thin film
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such as the one described here. For
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k is the thermal conductivity of th
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through finite differences. Mathema
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Figure 4 Comparison of blade cross-
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integration of multiple disciplines
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17. S. S. Talya, ‘‘Multidiscipl
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INTRODUCTION 10 Rotordynamic Consid
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Figure 1 (c) AlliedSignal 331 turbo
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Figure 2 Rotor system displacements
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Figure 3 Elliptic lateral whirl. av
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vibration (either forward or backwa
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Figure 6 The Laval-Jeffcott rotor.
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are 1808 out of phase (i.e., the be
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this graph is quite simple; however
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included on these types of graphs b
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on the shaft is zero. Thus, the ste
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are uðtÞ ¼e zeott uo cos ott þ
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satisfies the inequality O < ot 1
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Figure 16 Laval-Jeffcott rotor tran
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Figure 18 Whirl speed map: Laval-Je
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Figure 20 Laval-Jeffcott rotor: ste
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Figure 22 Typical precessional mode
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Figure 24 Examples of flexible disk
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ackward modes, however, involve con
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Figure 29 Steady unbalance response
Page 637 and 638:
assist in attenuating high vibratio
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properly sizing the damper, a highl
Page 641 and 642:
Figure 31 Gas turbine schematic and
Page 643 and 644:
Flexible Disk If the frequency of a
Page 645 and 646:
motion for each subsegment to form
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Figure 35 Whirl speed map—straddl
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Figure 37 Rotor-bearing-support str
Page 651 and 652:
DESIGN STRATEGIES AND PROCEDURES Ro
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Figure 38 Straddle mounted rotor. (
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Figure 39 Unbalance response: strad
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Figure 40 Double overhung rotor—d
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earing supports are reduced. The th
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and also increases the critical spe
Page 663 and 664:
Examples of structure modes couplin
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REFERENCES 1. D. Childs, Turbomachi
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section is intended to place today
Page 669 and 670:
pressure-fed propellant systems. Hi
Page 671 and 672:
normally be considered a very small
Page 673 and 674:
increase of required suction perfor
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displaced by the F-1 oxidizer pump
Page 677 and 678:
exposure may be subjected to imping
Page 679 and 680:
the exhaust duct. Sized to create s
Page 681 and 682:
excess of 6,000 psi for consumption
Page 683 and 684:
lifetime. With very few exceptions,
Page 685 and 686:
using hydrocarbon fuel combustion p
Page 687 and 688:
can yield noticeable savings in req
Page 689 and 690:
Figure 3 Rocket engine system schem
Page 691 and 692:
Figure 6 Staged combustion system,
Page 693 and 694:
each stage. The term C0 represents
Page 695 and 696:
Figure 10 Some representative turbo
Page 697 and 698:
emembered that the second (and any
Page 699 and 700:
the greatest demands on turbopump p
Page 701 and 702:
momentum exchange between working f
Page 703 and 704:
Figure 13 Arrangement of various tu
Page 705 and 706:
pressure levels. As long as combust
Page 707 and 708:
Figure 14 Approxmate values of pump
Page 709 and 710:
liquid rocket engine systems, and e
Page 711 and 712:
above becomes a factor. This statem
Page 713 and 714:
We can then state (correctly) that,
Page 715 and 716:
Figure 15c Typical 2-D centrifugal
Page 717 and 718:
have seen that the flow rate throug
Page 719 and 720:
somewhat smaller magnitude of vecto
Page 721 and 722:
general indicator. Nss will give us
Page 723 and 724:
U ¼ rotor tangential velocity. By
Page 725 and 726:
and pump flow derived from the engi
Page 727 and 728:
In addition to shaft seals, shaft b
Page 729 and 730:
should be understood that the optim
Page 731 and 732:
stable operation is assured. In som
Page 733 and 734:
From Eq. (16) an impeller radial ou
Page 735 and 736:
Figure 18 Examples of centrifugal p
Page 737 and 738:
tional to clearance distance) with
Page 739 and 740:
I would like to conclude this secti
Page 741 and 742:
generally result in lower pump hydr
Page 743 and 744:
Figure 15h Cross-section of a typic
Page 745 and 746:
solutions of Eq. (7) for both stage
Page 747 and 748:
Figure 15k H-Q characteristics for
Page 749 and 750:
Figure 15l Typical inducer configur
Page 751 and 752:
camber) is proportionally lower. Th
Page 753 and 754:
Figure 22 Single-stage impulse turb
Page 755 and 756:
the velocity ratio K, but in somewh
Page 757 and 758:
~V and ~n ¼ fluid velocity and con
Page 759 and 760:
Fig. 25. The nature of the flow in
Page 761 and 762:
Although shrouded centrifugal impel
Page 763 and 764:
is a parasitic device, whose flow r
Page 765 and 766:
apidly than does the inducer thrust
Page 767 and 768:
Figure 30 LH2 turbopump rotor mecha
Page 769 and 770:
eplacement of a failed bearing with
Page 771 and 772:
shall see, contemporary rocket engi
Page 773 and 774:
needs of the aircraft gas turbine a
Page 775 and 776:
was increased due to engine upratin
Page 777 and 778:
12 Turbomachinery Performance Testi
Page 779 and 780:
istics. The more accurate the perfo
Page 781 and 782:
Inlet Distortion Most turbomachiner
Page 783 and 784:
Gas Thermodynamic Properties Turbom
Page 785 and 786:
ought to rest isentropically. Total
Page 787 and 788:
include not only the pressure chang
Page 789 and 790:
The circumferential placement of th
Page 791 and 792:
simply arithmetically averaging the
Page 793 and 794:
usually mounted in radial immersion
Page 795 and 796:
Figure 12(b) Radial flow angle prof
Page 797 and 798:
Figure 15 Wake rake total pressure
Page 799 and 800:
Figure 16 Blade-tip pressure traces
Page 801 and 802:
Figure 18 Typical test rig schemati
Page 803 and 804:
INSTRUMENTATION DESIGN CONSIDERATIO
Page 805 and 806:
Dynamic Pressure. Dynamic pressure
Page 807 and 808:
thermocouples. With care in constru
Page 809 and 810:
Figure 24 Typical two-dimensional f
Page 811 and 812:
Thermocouple lead wires should be i
Page 813 and 814:
Corrected Flow The flow rates used
Page 815 and 816:
pressure ratio [15]. It can be calc
Page 817 and 818:
SYMBOLS A Cross-section area Cd Dis
Page 819 and 820:
INTRODUCTION 13 Automotive Supercha
Page 821 and 822:
Figure 2 A Roots-type supercharger
Page 823 and 824:
The supercharger was in routine use
Page 825 and 826:
Table 1 Superchargers Versus Turboc
Page 827 and 828:
1960s, turbocharging was used by US
Page 829 and 830:
Roots Blower The Roots-type blower
Page 831 and 832:
speeds. The sound is caused by the
Page 833 and 834:
Figure 8b How the Ro-charger operat
Page 835 and 836:
The vanes in many designs are preve
Page 837 and 838:
Figure 11a Key components of the G-
Page 839 and 840:
Figure 11c G-Lader supercharger is
Page 841 and 842:
Figure 12b Schematic of centrifugal
Page 843 and 844:
Figure 14b Components of the typica
Page 845 and 846:
Turbine Design The turbine housing
Page 847 and 848:
inertia of the wheel assembly. Mini
Page 849 and 850:
Figure 18 (a) Turbocharger compress
Page 851 and 852:
Theoretically this efficiency is: o
Page 853 and 854:
The overall turbine efficiency incl
Page 855 and 856:
adjust the spring force to vary the
Page 857 and 858:
Figure 22b Two vanes are used to pr
Page 859 and 860:
However, the temperature has to be
Page 861 and 862:
air can reduce carbon monoxide and
Page 863 and 864:
Figure 25 (a) Schematic of the COMP
Page 865 and 866:
this plus the fact that the exhaust
Page 867 and 868:
14 Tesla Turbomachinery Warren Rice
Page 869 and 870:
press at the time of the invention
Page 871 and 872:
can be made to simplify the equatio
Page 873 and 874:
comparison of the results of variou
Page 875 and 876:
y composing them of nested cones ra
Page 877 and 878:
26. E. Bakke, ‘‘Theoretical and
Page 879 and 880:
61. M. Piesche, ‘‘Investigation
Page 881 and 882:
15 Hydraulic Turbines V. Dakshina M
Page 883 and 884:
Table 1 Variables of Interest in Tu
Page 885 and 886:
Figure 1 Variation of impeller shap
Page 887 and 888:
Figure 2 Flow and velocity componen
Page 889 and 890:
Figure 3 Schematic diagram of Pelto
Page 891 and 892:
shown in Fig. 5(see KadambiandPrasa
Page 893 and 894:
classified according to the directi
Page 895 and 896:
The manufacturers of hydraulic turb
Page 897 and 898:
The direction of the relative veloc
Page 899 and 900:
Table 3 Variation of Some Quantitie
Page 901 and 902:
denoted by hd. Thus the efficiency
Page 903 and 904:
Figure 14 Draft tube setting. same
Page 905:
REFERENCES 1. J. J. Fritz, Small an
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Handbook of Turbomachinery Second Edition Revised - Ventech!

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