Handbook of Turbomachinery Second Edition Revised - Ventech!

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INTRODUCTION 2 Fluid Dynamics of Turbomachines Lysbeth Lieber Honeywell Engines and Systems, Phoenix, Arizona, U.S.A. For current turbomachinery design, and in particular for aero engine applications, a primary emphasis is being placed on improved engine performance. Perhaps the most far-reaching example of this is the Integrated High Performance Turbine Engine Technology (IHPTET) Program, sponsored by NASA and DOD [1]. The goal of IHPTET is to achieve a twofold increase in performance, for advanced military turbine engines, by the beginning of the 21st century. Depending on the application, this performance increase will be achieved in a variety of ways, including increased thrust-to-weight, increased power-to-weight, and reduced specific fuel consumption (SFC). While the goals of IHPTET represent the extreme, in terms of performance advances, the highly competitive nature of the current business climate requires performance increases of one form or another for all new turbomachinery products. In particular, with fuel costs representing a large portion of direct operating costs for airlines, SFC is a major performance factor for commercial aero engines. Copyright © 2003 Marcel Dekker, Inc.
Overall engine performance goals translate directly into specific aerodynamic performance requirements for individual turbomachinery components. In order to meet demanding performance goals, such as those set by IHPTET and the competitive marketplace in general, turbomachinery components must be designed to meet the requirements of increased efficiency, increased work per stage, increased pressure ratio per stage, and increased operating temperatures. By necessity, the dramatic improvements in performance that will be achieved will come as a result of employing components featuring advanced aerodynamic concepts. These components will have much greater complexity than those seen in the past, including a higher degree of threedimensionality in both component and flow-path configurations. The flow fields associated with these components will be equally complex and threedimensional. Because an understanding of this complex flow behavior is critical to the successful design of such components, more capable analysis tools employing computational fluid dynamics (CFD) are essential in the design process. In the past, it was sufficient to design turbomachinery components using simple tools based on two-dimensional (2D) inviscid flow models. However, with the current trend toward more sophisticated designs and more complex flow fields, these earlier tools are no longer adequate to the task of analyzing and designing advanced technology components. In reality, the flows encountered in these components are highly threedimensional (3D), viscous, turbulent, and often transonic. These complex flows will not yield to understanding or prediction without the application of equally sophisticated modeling techniques. To address the need to design such components, advanced CFD tools are required that are capable of analyzing 3D, viscous, and transonic flows, modeling turbulence and heat transfer, and treating complex geometric configurations. In addition, unsteady flows and the interactions of multiple blade rows must be considered. The intent of this chapter is to present a brief overview of the characteristics of the flow in various types of turbomachinery components, and also to summarize the CFD analysis capabilities required to model such flows. This should give the reader a better appreciation for the impact of flow behavior on the design of such components, and for the level of modeling capability required to properly analyze the components. The focus will be on aero engine applications, but will exclude inlets, nozzles, and combustors. In addition, an assessment of trends in both component design and CFD analysis tools is included. Due to the complexity of these subjects, only a cursory discussion will be presented. However, references are provided in order to allow the reader to explore these topics in more detail. Copyright © 2003 Marcel Dekker, Inc.
Page 1 and 2:
D E K K E R Handbook of Turbomachin
Page 3 and 4:
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING A Series of
Page 5 and 6: 61 Computer-Aided Simulation in Rai
Page 7 and 8: 127 Designing for Product Sound Qua
Page 9 and 10: Preface to the Second Edition The o
Page 11 and 12: Preface to the Second Edition Prefa
Page 13 and 14: Contributors Nathan G. Adams The Bo
Page 15 and 16: 1 Introduction Earl Logan, Jr.*, an
Page 17 and 18: HISTORICAL BACKGROUND Earl Logan, J
Page 19 and 20: MECHANICAL AND THERMAL DESIGN CONSI
Page 21 and 22: Figure 1 Cross-section showing the
Page 23 and 24: Figure 2 Turboprop engine, TPE 331-
Page 25 and 26: Figure 4 Auxiliary power unit, APU1
Page 27 and 28: Durability. The mechanical and ther
Page 29 and 30: with time during flight. Such a typ
Page 31 and 32: experience and existing similar des
Page 33 and 34: adverse pressure gradient against w
Page 35 and 36: and its attachments. A substantial
Page 37 and 38: Figure 9 Typical high-pressure turb
Page 39 and 40: and the measurement of local heat-t
Page 41 and 42: due to cyclic operation. In additio
Page 43 and 44: the steady and transient conditions
Page 45 and 46: Table 3(a) Steps in a Three-Dimensi
Page 47 and 48: Figure 16 Schematic Goodman diagram
Page 49 and 50: occur due to particles of unburned
Page 51 and 52: pressures at critical points. These
Page 53 and 54: 1. Ceramics are subject to ‘‘in
Page 55: with Transient Tests and Surface Co
Page 59 and 60: Much of the complexity of turbomach
Page 61 and 62: End-wall boundary layers can also h
Page 63 and 64: pressure at the wake centerline. Th
Page 65 and 66: the same vaneless diffuser and shro
Page 67 and 68: from internal cooling passages, thr
Page 69 and 70: Further downstream, the wake was ev
Page 71 and 72: to its original position. This unst
Page 73 and 74: cooling film was found to trip the
Page 75 and 76: shroud static pressure and the exit
Page 77 and 78: stage in the design process allows
Page 79 and 80: Flow Physics Modeling Modeling of t
Page 81 and 82: passage to the next, assuming that
Page 83 and 84: The next step in modeling accuracy
Page 85 and 86: tend to be large, due to the necess
Page 87 and 88: Navier-Stokes equations are time-ma
Page 89 and 90: To satisfy these requirements, it i
Page 91 and 92: are discussed by a number of author
Page 93 and 94: source code, and to assign each seg
Page 95 and 96: selected locations in the flow path
Page 97 and 98: of the component designers must be
Page 99 and 100: Trends in Flow Modeling Capabilitie
Page 101 and 102: optimize the flow behavior. The eff
Page 103 and 104: 20. D. Eckardt, ‘‘Flow Field An
Page 105 and 106: 49. K. R. Kirtley, ‘‘An Algebra
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INTRODUCTION 3 Turbine Gas-Path Hea
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Figure 1 Maximum turbine rotor inle
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Figure 2 Intersecting S1 and S2 sur
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determination. Nothing in the simpl
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e well matched with the engine. The
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case different forms of the popular
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volume will be equal to the accumul
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Figure 9 Nusselt number vs. vane su
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Furthermore, to keep computer time
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Figure 12 Comparison of three turbu
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and small and cooled and uncooled t
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Figure 15 Miniature heat flux gauge
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Figure 17 Time resolved heat transf
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Figure 19 Surface pressure changes
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NONUNIFORM INLET FLOW All gas turbi
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Figure 22 Typical distributions of
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4. Better instrumentation for heat-
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24. R. H. Ni, ‘‘A Multiple Grid
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4 Selection of a Gas Turbine Coolin
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Re L ¼ rVL=m—Reynolds number bas
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(1,300 8F). But modern gas turbines
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during engine operation are compati
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Figure 3 Airfoil cooling techniques
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expected to increase this limit to
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1. Reduce the effect of main-stream
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P? is total inlet pressure. Tc=T? i
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thereby increasing both the skin-fr
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After four decades of advancement i
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correspondingly high coolant-side t
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component. Use of a hot cascade for
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nozzle vanes is limited by their ox
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Figure 9 Typical turbine hot sectio
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important factor to consider for tr
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Figure 10 Evolution of nozzle geome
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the exit of the combustor section f
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Figure 12 Inlet turbulence effect o
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in heat transfer as the Reynolds nu
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easonably well using correlations e
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in the section on blade cooling tha
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mass flow rate (e.g., M ¼ 1 for a
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holes. Cooling hole pattern is an i
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coolant flow with the main stream,
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above equation assumes a constant f
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Figure 15 Definition of film-coolin
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edistribution of the external heat-
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Three-Dimensional Effects The three
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In order to achieve the bulk metal
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coefficient is given by Nud ¼ hd=k
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Where G ¼ 2:24ðw=tÞ 0:1 ðReeÞ
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pressure drop. The 608/458 V-shaped
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Some of the studies have found that
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of the cooling air and the turning
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Figure 20 Impingement geometry defi
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correlated by Nu a d ¼ 0:63ðGd=m
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tangentially to the inner wall, beh
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The effectiveness of a suction surf
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vortex structure. Their studies sho
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Figure 23 Effect of preswirler pres
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component to the cooling air that c
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axial gap. A static pressure variat
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Weight, cost, and complexity constr
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Figure 28 Effectiveness of liner co
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thickness. A problem this poses is
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portion of the hole has been shown
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unacceptable engine performance pen
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analysis, in order to provide accur
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Figure 30 Application of PSP for fi
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thermocouple positioned close to th
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spray-painted black (Hallcrest, BB-
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Figure 32 Schematics of a hot casca
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the turbine static temperature (rot
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Figure 33 Experimental rig for inve
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their color when exposed to higher
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margins defined within each discipl
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them. The larger gas-path divergenc
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Figure 36 Blade-cooling selection d
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8. B. Barry, Turbine Blade Cooling:
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40. A. K. Tolpadi and M. E. Crawfor
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73. R. S. Abhari, ‘‘Comparison
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106. J. M. Owen and R. H. Rogers, F
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138. I. Egorov, G. Kretinin, I. Les
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integrity (stress levels) will have
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Figure 1 Instant entropy contours o
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Aerodynamic Interaction (Unsteady L
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Figure 3 Pitchwise time-averaged en
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The above considerations are all fo
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lades, the wavelength of the distur
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forcing and damping, and hence the
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frequency and its higher harmonics
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The two-cell pattern with a relativ
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Figure 9 Typical blade flutter boun
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field is generated to satisfy the t
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Figure 11 Instant static pressure c
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Figure 12 Calculated instantaneous
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Figure 14 Time-space static pressur
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one period Tp (neglecting change of
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It should be noted that the effects
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There are some further points to no
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Figure 17 Flow around an NACA-65 ai
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(11) for a simple case]: Where WA
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Regardless whether loosely coupled
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Several methods have been developed
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significant difference is introduce
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losses, but it may affect to a mini
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when we refine a mesh in an unstead
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8. W. S. Barankiewicz and M. D. Hat
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6 Fundamentals of Compressor Design
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Figure 3 AlliedSignal 331 turboprop
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each of the selected radii. The pro
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components of gas velocity upstream
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Observe that each of the curves for
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The conservation of angular momentu
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allowable static pressure ratio of
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Figure 7 Boundary layers and wakes
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component that is perpendicular to
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Figure 10 (a) Deflection of flow of
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increase in the downstream pressure
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Mach number at a compressor outlet
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Figure 12 Sketch of flow surface an
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useful shapes and orientations of b
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where G and oa are constant along a
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There is a good reason for this sit
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Projected Shape in Meridional Plane
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inherent flow range of the impeller
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compressors. Multistage centrifugal
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turbines. In these designs the high
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Corrections for Streamline Curvatur
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Preparation of Maps Once the losses
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that circumferential gradients meas
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Nastran, which was developed by NAS
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tests. One should take pains to pro
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e predicted in advance. Total press
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Cv Coefficient of heat at constant
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15. S. Lieblein, J. Basic Eng., Tra
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INTRODUCTION 7 Fundamentals of Turb
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Figure 1 Cross sections of generic
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espectively. Radial-inflow turbines
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Figure 4 Typical rotor blade shapes
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Figure 6 The expansion process acro
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the average for the gas flowing thr
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etween the velocity diagram and the
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gas dynamics relation p 00 p ¼ T 0
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Figure 9 Variations in turbine velo
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pressure, inlet losses are usually
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diffuser recovery, defined as Rp ¼
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different turbines easier, dimensio
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where and y ¼ T 0 in TSTD d ¼ p0
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sizing exercises where the details
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where Rth is the Reynolds number ba
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order to determine the overall turb
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The classical approach to satisfyin
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clearance. Since tip clearance repr
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turbine with an effective diffuser,
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atio ðp 0 in =pdisÞ is 3. The sta
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Automation of Calculations and Trad
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and for the rotor Zrotor ¼ ð0:1Þ
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the energy extracted and the rotor
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RADIAL-INFLOW TURBINE SIZING Differ
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interpolations from existing design
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Glassman [1], the optimum ratio of
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design fault in the radial-inflow t
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[27]. In order to avoid manufacturi
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The rotor exit critical velocity is
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The hub-to-tip radius ratio at the
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REFERENCES 1. A. J. Glassman (ed.),
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8 Steam Turbines Thomas H. McCloske
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Figure 3 Reciprocating steam engine
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This process began in the 1920s, al
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First Law of Thermodynamics The fir
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the amount of fuel burned and the p
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Figure 7 Rankine cycle temperature-
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The Mollier diagram is quite useful
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Figure 10 Theoretical Rankine cycle
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stages of the turbine is at a highe
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calculate the relevant thermodynami
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Figure 14 Steam leakage losses for
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can reveal nozzle and/or blade eros
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Figure 17 Enlarged portion of the M
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Traditionally, pressures have been
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Figure 21 Wetness thermodynamic los
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Figure 23 Radial steam turbine flow
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Figure 25 Percentage stage reaction
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The power output of the stage can b
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the LP turbines is split into paral
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Turbine Inlet Two stages in particu
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of 20%, which would cause excessive
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Figure 30 Typical low-pressure stea
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ductility and poor toughness, since
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‘‘tramp’’ elements to minim
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End Seals End seals or packing glan
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Drains Condensate can form during s
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Figure 32 Steam turbine blade roots
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Figure 34 Cross-section view of thr
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Figure 36 Interblade shroud and Tie
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Where The influence of notch sensit
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Similarly, LP turbine blades are su
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those made of steel. Note, however,
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esult, significant attention must b
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Figure 38 Centrifugal stresses on a
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Figure 39 Centrifugal bending stres
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onto the rotating blade. These can
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Vortex shedding from blade trailing
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Figure 42 Torsional coupled vibrati
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Figure 44 Stall flutter of low-pres
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Start-Stop Transients/Overspeeds La
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(4) ellipiticity, such as caused by
Page 519 and 520:
Figure 47 Campbell diagram (frequen
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Furthermore, in practice each manuf
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Figure 49 Modal diameters of a low-
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Figure 51 Three-dimensional computa
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Figure 52 Converging wedge and resu
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value as the operating value of uv/
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Lubrication Supply System Design De
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Figure 56 Steam turbine oil system
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The main oil reservoir is located b
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Although a light oil does provide a
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temperatures are suspected as reaso
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There is no fixed or absolute value
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pivots incorporated in this bearing
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covers and doors. Pipe scale, rust,
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Figure 63 Mechanical hydraulic cont
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Figure 64 Steam turbine electro-hyd
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Figure 65 Steam turbine electro-hyd
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generator rotor moment of inertia h
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the turbine against overspeed. This
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an additional electronic overspeed
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Figure 68 Steam turbine protective
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3. Need for better understanding of
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REFERENCES 1. J. C. Zink, ‘‘Ste
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No. TWDPS-1, The American Society o
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58. A. V. Sarlashkar and T. C. T. L
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81. IEEE Guide for Abnormal Frequen
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Atlanta, GA, Oct. 18-22, 1992, PWR-
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Performance Enhancement Program, he
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of the design process toward achiev
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procedure capable of addressing mul
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to achieve a specific target pressu
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objective was to minimize the downs
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more closely represents the largest
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temperature by forming a thin film
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such as the one described here. For
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k is the thermal conductivity of th
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through finite differences. Mathema
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Figure 4 Comparison of blade cross-
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integration of multiple disciplines
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17. S. S. Talya, ‘‘Multidiscipl
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INTRODUCTION 10 Rotordynamic Consid
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Figure 1 (c) AlliedSignal 331 turbo
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Figure 2 Rotor system displacements
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Figure 3 Elliptic lateral whirl. av
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vibration (either forward or backwa
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Figure 6 The Laval-Jeffcott rotor.
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are 1808 out of phase (i.e., the be
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this graph is quite simple; however
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included on these types of graphs b
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on the shaft is zero. Thus, the ste
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are uðtÞ ¼e zeott uo cos ott þ
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satisfies the inequality O < ot 1
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Figure 16 Laval-Jeffcott rotor tran
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Figure 18 Whirl speed map: Laval-Je
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Figure 20 Laval-Jeffcott rotor: ste
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Figure 22 Typical precessional mode
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Figure 24 Examples of flexible disk
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ackward modes, however, involve con
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Figure 29 Steady unbalance response
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assist in attenuating high vibratio
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properly sizing the damper, a highl
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Figure 31 Gas turbine schematic and
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Flexible Disk If the frequency of a
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motion for each subsegment to form
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Figure 35 Whirl speed map—straddl
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Figure 37 Rotor-bearing-support str
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DESIGN STRATEGIES AND PROCEDURES Ro
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Figure 38 Straddle mounted rotor. (
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Figure 39 Unbalance response: strad
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Figure 40 Double overhung rotor—d
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earing supports are reduced. The th
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and also increases the critical spe
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Examples of structure modes couplin
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REFERENCES 1. D. Childs, Turbomachi
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section is intended to place today
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pressure-fed propellant systems. Hi
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normally be considered a very small
Page 673 and 674:
increase of required suction perfor
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displaced by the F-1 oxidizer pump
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exposure may be subjected to imping
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the exhaust duct. Sized to create s
Page 681 and 682:
excess of 6,000 psi for consumption
Page 683 and 684:
lifetime. With very few exceptions,
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using hydrocarbon fuel combustion p
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can yield noticeable savings in req
Page 689 and 690:
Figure 3 Rocket engine system schem
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Figure 6 Staged combustion system,
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each stage. The term C0 represents
Page 695 and 696:
Figure 10 Some representative turbo
Page 697 and 698:
emembered that the second (and any
Page 699 and 700:
the greatest demands on turbopump p
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momentum exchange between working f
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Figure 13 Arrangement of various tu
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pressure levels. As long as combust
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Figure 14 Approxmate values of pump
Page 709 and 710:
liquid rocket engine systems, and e
Page 711 and 712:
above becomes a factor. This statem
Page 713 and 714:
We can then state (correctly) that,
Page 715 and 716:
Figure 15c Typical 2-D centrifugal
Page 717 and 718:
have seen that the flow rate throug
Page 719 and 720:
somewhat smaller magnitude of vecto
Page 721 and 722:
general indicator. Nss will give us
Page 723 and 724:
U ¼ rotor tangential velocity. By
Page 725 and 726:
and pump flow derived from the engi
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In addition to shaft seals, shaft b
Page 729 and 730:
should be understood that the optim
Page 731 and 732:
stable operation is assured. In som
Page 733 and 734:
From Eq. (16) an impeller radial ou
Page 735 and 736:
Figure 18 Examples of centrifugal p
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tional to clearance distance) with
Page 739 and 740:
I would like to conclude this secti
Page 741 and 742:
generally result in lower pump hydr
Page 743 and 744:
Figure 15h Cross-section of a typic
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solutions of Eq. (7) for both stage
Page 747 and 748:
Figure 15k H-Q characteristics for
Page 749 and 750:
Figure 15l Typical inducer configur
Page 751 and 752:
camber) is proportionally lower. Th
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Figure 22 Single-stage impulse turb
Page 755 and 756:
the velocity ratio K, but in somewh
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~V and ~n ¼ fluid velocity and con
Page 759 and 760:
Fig. 25. The nature of the flow in
Page 761 and 762:
Although shrouded centrifugal impel
Page 763 and 764:
is a parasitic device, whose flow r
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apidly than does the inducer thrust
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Figure 30 LH2 turbopump rotor mecha
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eplacement of a failed bearing with
Page 771 and 772:
shall see, contemporary rocket engi
Page 773 and 774:
needs of the aircraft gas turbine a
Page 775 and 776:
was increased due to engine upratin
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12 Turbomachinery Performance Testi
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istics. The more accurate the perfo
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Inlet Distortion Most turbomachiner
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Gas Thermodynamic Properties Turbom
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ought to rest isentropically. Total
Page 787 and 788:
include not only the pressure chang
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The circumferential placement of th
Page 791 and 792:
simply arithmetically averaging the
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usually mounted in radial immersion
Page 795 and 796:
Figure 12(b) Radial flow angle prof
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Figure 15 Wake rake total pressure
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Figure 16 Blade-tip pressure traces
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Figure 18 Typical test rig schemati
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INSTRUMENTATION DESIGN CONSIDERATIO
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Dynamic Pressure. Dynamic pressure
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thermocouples. With care in constru
Page 809 and 810:
Figure 24 Typical two-dimensional f
Page 811 and 812:
Thermocouple lead wires should be i
Page 813 and 814:
Corrected Flow The flow rates used
Page 815 and 816:
pressure ratio [15]. It can be calc
Page 817 and 818:
SYMBOLS A Cross-section area Cd Dis
Page 819 and 820:
INTRODUCTION 13 Automotive Supercha
Page 821 and 822:
Figure 2 A Roots-type supercharger
Page 823 and 824:
The supercharger was in routine use
Page 825 and 826:
Table 1 Superchargers Versus Turboc
Page 827 and 828:
1960s, turbocharging was used by US
Page 829 and 830:
Roots Blower The Roots-type blower
Page 831 and 832:
speeds. The sound is caused by the
Page 833 and 834:
Figure 8b How the Ro-charger operat
Page 835 and 836:
The vanes in many designs are preve
Page 837 and 838:
Figure 11a Key components of the G-
Page 839 and 840:
Figure 11c G-Lader supercharger is
Page 841 and 842:
Figure 12b Schematic of centrifugal
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Figure 14b Components of the typica
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Turbine Design The turbine housing
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inertia of the wheel assembly. Mini
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Figure 18 (a) Turbocharger compress
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Theoretically this efficiency is: o
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The overall turbine efficiency incl
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adjust the spring force to vary the
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Figure 22b Two vanes are used to pr
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However, the temperature has to be
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air can reduce carbon monoxide and
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Figure 25 (a) Schematic of the COMP
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this plus the fact that the exhaust
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14 Tesla Turbomachinery Warren Rice
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press at the time of the invention
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can be made to simplify the equatio
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comparison of the results of variou
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y composing them of nested cones ra
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26. E. Bakke, ‘‘Theoretical and
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61. M. Piesche, ‘‘Investigation
Page 881 and 882:
15 Hydraulic Turbines V. Dakshina M
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Table 1 Variables of Interest in Tu
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Figure 1 Variation of impeller shap
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Figure 2 Flow and velocity componen
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Figure 3 Schematic diagram of Pelto
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shown in Fig. 5(see KadambiandPrasa
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classified according to the directi
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The manufacturers of hydraulic turb
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The direction of the relative veloc
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Table 3 Variation of Some Quantitie
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denoted by hd. Thus the efficiency
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Figure 14 Draft tube setting. same
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REFERENCES 1. J. J. Fritz, Small an
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Handbook of Turbomachinery Second Edition Revised - Ventech!

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