FILSAFAT KORUPSI - Direktori File UPI

that children feel as a result of pressure not just from parents but from other members of the ethnic group.
A society
divided into a collection of ethnic groups may operate with little cross-ethnic economic and social activity
thus limiting
social and economic development. Ethnic groups might make it easy to develop a trustworthy reputation
and impart useful
social values that maintain social order, but they can also create prejudice and hostility among groups
(Wintrobe, 1995)).
This issue of ethnic solidarity arises in Central and Eastern Europe where Russian minorities exist and
where boundaries
have left ethnic groups such as Hungarians located in several countries. Of course, the Roma present
special issues of in-
group trust and prejudice in the broader society.
18
World Bank, 2000b: 199, 203. The Albanian study is by Douglas Saltmarche.
19
The variable measures the use of corrupt or clientalistic networks for housing repair, getting an apartment,
personal safety, theft, portfolio investment, social benefits, permit, getting to see doctor, hospital treatment,
getting into a
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important explanatory variable both for employed people and for a larger sample of all respondents.
These results may indicate that those who use such networks have a circle of friends willing to help
with both private favors and the illicit allocation of state services and regulatory benefits. This is a
troubling implication since it suggests the relative solidity of networks of obligation based, in part,
on corruption and clientalism. A family connection to the Communist Party also has significant
explanatory power, indicating that some people are relying on links forged under the previous
regime. These results, in short, suggest that some of the trusting relationships in Russia are a legacy
from the Soviet period. Connections may help people over difficult patches in their day-to-day lives
but do not appear to be contributing to long term reform of the state administration or to the
consolidation of democratic structures. In short, an important research topic is the impact of past
relationships on present efforts to establish a new legal and institutional framework that relies on
democratic accountability and impartiality.
B. Trust and Democracy
Large democracies govern themselves through political representatives and other kinds of
agents such as bureaucrats and judges. Because elected representatives cannot be perfectly
controlled by voters, the electorate must have some level of trust in those it elects. Similarly,
bureaucrats and judges also have considerable discretion. The more they can be trusted to fulfill
their roles willingly, the fewer the resources needed to monitor and discipline them, and the more
discretion they can be given. The key requirement here is for one-sided trust based on the reliability
or trustworthiness of public officials.
Piotr Sztompka (1999: 146-148) lists the ways in which trust contributes to democracy. The
most important omission from his list, in light of my framework, is reciprocal trust based on kinship,
love, and friendship. Although he does not explicitly deal with the downside of this type of trust, the
omission is consistent with my own emphasis on the tension between friendly reciprocity and
legitimate democratic functioning. According to Sztompka, democracy requires communication,
and trust facilitates communication by helping people both to speak and to listen. Democracy
requires tolerance of difference, and trust in others is part of accepting differences rather than seeing
them as threats. Mutual trust keeps public debates from degenerating into personal attacks. These
three claims depend on reciprocal trust that derives from moral commitments. Sztompka also argues
that democracy requires people to accept some basic rules of interaction. Trust in others makes
people more willing to play by the rules since they anticipate that others will do so as well. People
need to trust both public institutions and other people in order to be willing to participate in politics.
These two aspects depend upon the rule-based character of the state, that is on its reliability or
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