Radar System Engineering

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716 RADAR RELAY [SEC. 17.10 signal strength as a function of range for frequencies of 100, 300, and 850 Me/see, displaying the effect of frequency on the number and the magnitude of the fluctuations in signal strength that are due to interference. Figure 17.16 shows curves of signal strength as a function of range for receiver antenna heights of 75, 110, and 140 ft above the surface of the sea. These curves indicate the manner in which the effects of signal cancellation can be reduced by using diversity reception with antennas at different heights. A simple diversity system might consist of two antennas respectively 75 and 140 ft above the sea, with arrangements for switching the receiver to the antenna providing the greater signal strength at any given moment. In effect, this reduces the depths of the cancellation minima in either of the antennas considered separately. Future Trends in Frequency .—Frequencies most generally used for radar relay have been in the region from one to a few hundred megacycles per second, partly for reasons of achievable power, higher gains of nondirectional antennas, and so on. Future trends appear to lead toward higher frequencies, up to and including microwaves. Comparatively speaking, the use of such frequencies is characterized by the possibility of using simple, highly directional antennas, by low gain in omnidirectional antennas, by reduction in man-made static (except for pulse interference from radars), by a great increase in the overwater diffraction effect, by a large number of available channels, and by the relatively low power now available for c-w operation. The powers available for continuous operation with equipment developed by the end of the war are approximately as follows: 100 Me/see (FM)., . . . . . . . . (AM.. . 300 Nfc/sec (FM) . . . . . (AM) . . . . . . . . . . 1000 Me/see (FM), ,.,.. (AM)... 3000 Mc/sec(F.M). 10,000 Mc/sec (FM)... 100 watts average 100 watts average 250 watts peak video level 500 watts peak in pulses 30 watts average 30 watts average 80 watts peak video level 175 watts peak in pulses { 25 watts average 25 watts average 40 watts peak video level 80 watts peak in pulses 10 watts average 0.1 watts average Any of these is sufficient for use in applications where both antennas can be directive., and there is little question that the very highest fre-
SEC. 17.11] GENERAL EQUIPMENT CONSIDERATIONS 717 quencies will be used for such purposes in the future. Until recently it was not economical to use a-f modulation of microwaves because of the extreme oscillator-stability requirements necessary to avoid excessive bandwidth. However, a highly ingenious application of a microwave discriminator in combination with a feedback amplifier controlling the oscillator frequency appears to overcome this difficulty and to permit the use of c-w synchronization methods. For applications requiring omnidirectional antennas, the ranges so far obtained at frequencies above 300 Me/see have been rather limited, especially in situations involving diffraction effects. As greater power becomes available at the higher frequencies, they will undoubtedly find more and more applications even where it is not possible to use highly directed beams. The diffraction difficulty can largely be overcome by the careful use of diversity antennas. 17.11. General Transmitter and Receiver Considerations.-Although the specific characteristics desirable in the transmitter and receiver depend upon the particular application, certain general statements can be made. The transmitter should provide sufficient power to ensure clear signals, free from noise and interference, at the maximum required range. In common with all components, it must have sufficient bandwidth to accommodate the band of frequencies present. The receiver should have a satisfactory noise figure, a proper bandwidth, and in many cases must provide special means of distinguishing between desired and undesired signals by methods analogous to the antijamming techniques described in Sec. 12.8. Automatic gain control is necessary to prevent strong signals from overloading the receiver, and to insure that signals are applied to the decoder at the correct level. Bandwidth varies with the particular characteristics of the radar set and the type of synchronization used. In general, the video sections will have a bandwidth between 1 and 3 Me/see, with corresponding r-f and i-f bandwidths from 2 to 6 Me/see, when normal search radar systems are used. Since the relay link is only one section of the over-all channel, the bandwidths of its components must be somewhat greater than would be necessary if it alone were involved. An important decision is the choice between amplitude and frequency modulation. The relative advantages and disadvantages of these two methods are somewhat different for pulsed and for c-w signals, and depend also upon the type of interference expected. The principal advantage of frequency modulation is this: if the carrier power is appreciably greater than that of an interfering signal, the latter tends to be 1R. V. Pound, “An Electronic Frequency Stabilization <strong>System</strong> for CW Microwave Oscillators,” RL Report No. 815, Oct. 1, 1945; Rev. Sci. Inst. 17, 490 (1946).
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CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION BY LOUIS N.
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4 IN TRODUC7”ION [SEC.1.2 flik~c
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6 INTRODUCTION [SEC.1.3 pulse leaki
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8 INTRODUCTION [SEC.1.4 antenna is
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10 INTRODUCTION [SEC.14 step in out
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12 INTRODUCTION [SEC.1.5 where high
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14 INTRODUCTION [SEC.1.6 England, F
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16 INTRODUCTION [SEC.1°7 Microwave
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CHAPTER 2 THE lU.DAR EQUATION BY E.
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20 THE RADAR EQUATION [SEC.22 radia
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22 THE RADAR EQUATION [SEC.25 Again
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24 THE RADAR EQUATION [SEC.2.5 time
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26 THE RADAR EQUATION [SEC.2.5 smal
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28 THE RADAR EQUATION [SEC.!2.7 lim
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30 THE RADAR EQUATION [SEC.28 Anoth
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32 THE RADAR EQUATION [SEC.28 first
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34 TIIE RADAR EQUATION [Sm. 29 the
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36 THE RADAR EQUATION [SEC.2.10 (Vo
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38 THE RADAR EQUATION [SEC.210 prac
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40 THE RADAR EQUATION [SEC.2.10 tai
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42 THE RADAR EQUATION [SEC.2.11 swe
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44 THE RADAR EQUATION [SEC.2.11 res
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46 THE RADAR EQUATION [SEC.211 Alth
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48 THE RADAR EQUATION [SEC.212 othe
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50 THE RADAR EQUATION [SEC.212 The
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52 THE RADAR EQUATION [SEC. 2.12 Th
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54 THE RADAR EQUATION [SEC.213 smal
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56 THE RADAR EQUATION [SEC. 2.14 an
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58 THE RADAR EQUATION [SEC.2.15 not
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60 TIIE RADAR EQUATION [SEC.2.15 wt
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62 THE RADAR EQUATION [SEC.215 per
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64 PROPERTIES OF RADAR TARGETS [SEC
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66 PROPERTIES OF RADAR TARGET,S [SE
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PROPERTIES OF RADAR TARGETS [SEC.37
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88 PROPERTIES OF R.41~.l R T.-lRGE~
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92 PROPERTIES OF RA1l.4R TARGETS [S
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SEC.315] STRUCTURES 99 example, the
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SF,C. 3.16] CITIES 101 reflection w
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SEC. 3.16] CITIES 103 signal repres
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SEC. 3.16] CITIES 105 four signals
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108 PROPERTIES OF RADAR TARGETS [SE
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112 PROPERTIES OF RADAR TARGETS [SE
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CHAPTER 4 LIMITATIONS OF PULSE RADA
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118 LIMITATIONS OF PULSE RADAR [SEC
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122 LIMITATIONS OF PC’LSE RADAR [
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128 C-W RADAR SYSTEMS [SEC. 5.1 tar
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130 C-W RADAR SYSTEMS [sm. 53 point
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132 C-W RADAR S’YSTEMS [SEC.56 bi
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134 C-W RADAR SYSTEMS [SEC. 56 tran
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136 C-W RADAR SYSTEMS [SEC. 5.6 int
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138 C-W RADAR SYSTEMS [SEC, 5.6 rel
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140 C-W RADAR SYSTEMS [SEC 37 and j
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142 C-II’ RADAR SYSTEMS [SEC. 57
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144 C-W RADAR SYSTE.JfS [SEC. 58 gi
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146 C-W RADAR SYSTEMS [SEC. 58 Modu
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148 C-T RA DAR S YSTE.lf S [SEC. 59
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150 C-W RADAR SYSTEMS [SEC. 5.11 cy
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152 C-W RADAR SYSTEMS [SEC.5.11 Now
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154 C-W RADAR SYSTEMS [SEC.5.11 exc
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156 C-W RADAR SYSTEMS [SEC. 5.11 in
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158 C-W RADAR SYSTEMS [SEC. 5.12 Pu
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CHAPTER 6 THE GATHERING AND PRESENT
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162 THE GATHERING AND PRESENTATION
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168 THE GATHERING AND pRESENTA TION
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~70 THE GATHERING AND PRESENTA TION
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SEC. 66] PLANE DISPLAYS INVOLVING E
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SEC. 69] IiARLY AIRCRAFT-WARNING RA
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SEC. 69] EARLY AIRCRAFT-WARNING RAD
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f$Ec. 69] EARLY AIRCRAFT-WARNING RA
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SEC. 6.9] EARLY AIRCRAFT-WARNING RA
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SEC. 6.10] PPI RADAR FOR SEARCH, CO
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SEC. 6.11] HEIGHT-FINDING INVOLVING
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SEC.6.12] HEIGHT-FINDING WITH A FRE
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- - -— . .. —-— - .. —-.
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SEC. 612] HEIGHT-FINDING J~ITH A FR
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SEC. 6.13] HOMING 197 ber of the pa
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SEC.6.13] HOMING 199 usually made t
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SEC. 6.13] HOMING 201 application,
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SEC. 6.14] PRECISION TRACKING OF A
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SEC.6.14] PRECISION TRACKING OF A S
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SEC. 614] PRECISION TRACKING OF A S
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f$Ec. 614] PRECISION TRACKING OF A
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SEC. 615] PRECISION TRACKING DURING
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CHAPTER 7 THE EMPLOYMENT OF RADAR D
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SEC.72] AIDS TO INDIVIDUAL NAVIGATI
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SEC. 7.2] AIDS TO INDIVIDUAL NAVIGA
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SEC. 73] AIDS TO PLOTTING AND CONTR
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SEC.7.3] AIDS TO PLOTTING AND CONTR
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SEC.7.3] AIDS TO PLOTTING AND CONTR
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SEC. 7.4] THE RELAY OF RADAR DISPLA
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SEC. 7.51 RA DAR IN THE RAF FIGHTER
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SEC. 7.6] THE U.S. TACTICAL AIR COM
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SEC.7.6] THE U.S. TACTICAL AIR COMM
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238 THE EMPLOYMENT OF RA DAR DATA [
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240 THE EMPLOYiWENT OF RADAR DATA [
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242 THE EMPLOYMENT OF RADAR DATA [S
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244 RADAR BEACONS [SEC. 8 duration
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246 RADAR BEACONS [SEC. 8.1 beacons
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248 RADAR BEACONS [SEC.8.1 4. Porta
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250 RADAR BEACONS [SEC.8.2 Table 8.
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252 RADAR BEACONS [SEC.84 restricte
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254 RADAR BEACONS [SEC. 85 radar se
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256 RADAR BEACONS [SEC.85 In the ca
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258 It Al)AIt BEACONS [S,,c, S3 Sim
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SEC. 86] FREQUENCY CONSIDERATIONS 2
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SEC. 87] INTERR~A TION CODES 263 wi
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SEC. 8.9] TRAFFIC CAPACITY 265 diff
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SEC.8.9] TRAFFIC CAPACITY 267 which
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270 RADAR BEACONS [SEC. 810 range a
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272 ANTENNAS, SCANNERS, A.VD STABIL
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274 ANTENNAS, SCANNERS, AND ST ABIL
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276 ANTENNAS, SCANNERS, AND STABILI
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SEC. 913] THE AN/APQ-7 (EAGLE) SCAN
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SEC.913] THE AN/APQ-7 (EAGLE) SCANN
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SEC. 9.14] SCHWA RZSCHILD ANTENNA 2
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SEC. 9.14] SCH WA RZSCHILD ANTENNA
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SEC. 9.15] SCI HEIGHT FINDER 299 de
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SEC.9.15] SCI HEIGHT FINDER 301 In
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SEC.916] OTHER TYPES OF ELECTRICAL
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SEC,9.17] STABILIZATION OF THE BEAM
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SEC. 9.17] STABILIZATION OF’ THE
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SEC. 9.17] STABILIZATION OF THE BEA
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t$Ec. 9,18] DATA STABILIZATION 311
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SEC. 920] INSTALLATION OF SURFACE-B
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SEC. 922] STREA MLIA”ING 315 func
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SEC. 9.25] EXAMPLES OF RADOMES 317
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SEC.9.25] EXAMPLES OF RADOMES 319 a
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SEC. 10.1] CONSTRUCTION 321 of the
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SEC. 10.1] CONSTRUCTION 323 later r
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SEC.10.2] THE RESONANT SYSTEM 325 m
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SEC. 1021 THE RESONANT SYSTEM 327
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SEC. 10.2] THE RESONANT SYSTEM 329
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SEC. 103] ELECTRON ORBITS AIVD THE
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SEC. 103] ELECTRON ORBITS AND THE S
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SEC. 103] ELECTRON ORBITS AND THE S
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SEC. 10.4] PERFORMANCE CHARTS AND R
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SEC. 10.4] PEIWORMilNCE CHARTS AND
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SEC. 10.5] MAGNETRON CHARACTERISTIC
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SEC.105] MAGNETRON CHARACTERISTICS
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SEC. 105] MAGNETRON CHARACTERISTICS
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SEC. 10.5] MAGNETRON CHARACTERISTIC
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SEC. 10.6] MAQNETRON CHARACTERISTIC
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L%C. 10.6] MAGNETRON CHARACTERISTIC
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SEC. 10.7] PULSER CIRCUITS 357 and
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SEC. 10.7] PULSER CIRCUITS 359 tude
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SEC. 10.7] PULSER CIRCUITS 361 cen~
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SEC. 108] LOAD REQUIREMENTS 363 TAB
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SEC. 10.8] LOAD REQUIREMENTS 365 to
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SEC. 109] THE HARD-TUBE P ULSEh? 36
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SEC. 10.9] THE HARD-TUBE P ULSER 36
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SEC 10.9] THE HARD-lUBE PULSER 371
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Sl?lc.10.91 LINE-TYPE PULSERS 373 D
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SEC. 10,10] LINE-TYPE PULSERS 375 i
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SEC. 10.10] LINE-TYPE PULSERS 377 I
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SEC. 10.10] LINE-T YPE PULSERS 379
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SEC. 10.10] LINE-TYPE PULSERS 381 T
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SEC.10.11] MISCELLANEOUS COMPONENTS
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SEC. 1011] MISCELLANEOUS COMPONENTS
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R-F CHAPTER 11 COMPONENTS BY A. E.
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SEC.11.2] COAXIAL LINES 393 Why a M
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SEC.11.2] COAXIAL LINES 395 lines h
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SEC.11.2] COAXIAL LINES 397 since n
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SEC,113] JVA VEGUIDE 399 than a qua
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i?EC. 11.3] WA VEGUIDE 401 too grad
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SEC. 113) WA VEGUIDE 403 types of m
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SEC. 11.4] RESONANT CAVITIES 405 co
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SEC. 11.5] D,C”PLEXING AND TR SWI
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SEC. 115] DUPLEXING AND TR SWITCHES
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SEC. 11.5] DUPLEXING AND TR SWITCHE
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SEC.11.6] THE MIXER CRYSTAL 413 sem
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SEC. 11.7] THE LOCAL OSCILLATOR 415
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SEC. 11 .8] THE MIXER 417 minimum l
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SEC.11.10] REASONS FOR AN R-F PACKA
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SEC. 11.11] DESIGN CONSZDERA TZONS
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SEC.11.11] DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS FO
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SEC. 11.12] ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES O
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SEC. 11°12] ILL US’TRA TIVE EXAM
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SEC. 11.12] ILL USTRA TIVE EXAMPLES
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SEC.11.12] ILL US1’IiA TI VE EXA
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CHAPTER 12 THE RECEIVING SYSTEM—R
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SEC. 122] A TYPICAL RECEIVING SYSTE
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SEC.12.2] A TYPICAL RECEIVING SYSTE
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SEC. 122] A TYPICAL RECEIVING SYSTE
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SEC.12.3] SPECIAL PROBLEMS IN RADAR
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SEC.12.4] I-F AMPLIFIER DESIGN 443
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SEC.12.4] I-F AMPLIFIER DESIGN 445
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SEC.124] I-F AMPLIFIER DESIGN 447 i
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SEC. 125] SECOND DETECTOR 449 This
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SEC.12.6] VIDEO AMPLIFIERS 451 ampl
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SEC.12.7] A UTOMA TIC FREQUENCY CON
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SEC. 12.7] A UTOMA TIC FREQUENCY CO
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S~C. 128] PROTECTION AGAINST EXTRAN
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SEC. 128] PROTECTION AGAINST EXTRAN
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SEC. 12.8] PROTECTION AGAINST E-YTR
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&- L,-self resonant COIIS at mterme
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J All resistors~ watt Interstate co
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SEC. 12.10] LIGHTH”EIGIIT AIRBOR.
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s, 0.001 $180 b To reflector To sea
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+ 180v T +120V 470 470 470 470 e“
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SEC.12.11] AN EXTREMELY WIDEBAND RE
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CHAPTER 13 THE RECEIVING SYSTEM—I
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SEC.13.1] ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES OF
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SEC 13.2] CATHODE-RAY TUBE SCREENS
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SEC.13.2] CATHODE-RAY TUBE SCREENS
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SEC. 13.3] SELECTIO.V OF THE CATHOD
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SEC. 13.3] SELECTION OF THE CATHODE
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SEC. 13.4] ANGLE-DATA TRANSMITTERS
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SEC.13.4] ANGLE-DATA TRANSMITTERS 4
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SEC. 13.5] ELECTROMECHANICAL REPEAT
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SEC. 13.6] AMPLIFIERS 493 whence th
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SEC. 13.6] AMPLIFIERS 495 by using
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SEC. 13.7] GENERA TION OF RECTANGUL
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SEC. 13.7] GENERATION OF RECTANGULA
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. SEC. 13.8] GENERA TION OF SHARP P
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SEC. 139] ELECTRONIC SWITCHES 503 T
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SEC. 13.9] ELECTRONIC SWITCHES 505
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SEC. 13.9] ELECTRO.VIC ISWI TCHES 5
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SEC. 13.9] ELECTRONIC SWITCHES 509
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SEC. 1310] SAWTOOTH GENERATORS 511
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SEC.13.10] SAWTOOTH GE,VBliATOh?S 5
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SEC. 1311] ANGLE INDICES 515 bright
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SEC. 13.11] ANGLE INDICES 517 the s
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. . “4 100k.lw $4.7k-lw .& t, T 0
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SEC.K3.121 RANGE AND HEIGIiT INDICE
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i%C.13121 RANGE AND HEIGHT INDICES;
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SEC. 13.13] DESIGN OF A-SCOPES 525
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SEC. 1313] DESIGN OF A-SCOPES 527 f
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SEC.1314] B-SCOPE DESIGN 529 \
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SEC. 13.14] B-SCOPE DESIG.V 531 wil
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Trigger I I I (CT)Sawtooth —. (A)
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SEC.1316] RESOLVED TIME BASE PPI 53
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SEC. 13.16] RESOLVED mi? TIME BASE
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SEC. 13.17] RESOLVED-CURRENT PPI 53
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SEC. 13.17] RESOLVED-CURRENT PPI 54
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+ 200V— — — J 60k . Llk )k 60
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SEC. 13.19] 1’HE RANGB-ll EIGII1
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SEL!. 13.19] THE RANGE-HEIGHT INDIC
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SEC. 13.20] RESOLUTION AND CONTRAST
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SEC. 13.211 SPECIAL RECEIVING TECHN
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554 THE RECEIVING SYSTEM-INDICATORS
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556 PRIME POWER SUPPLIES FOR RADAR
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. . . 0.9 P~- 860-’CPS CF over 2
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562 PRIME POWER SLTPPLIES FOR RADAR
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SEC. 14.6] SPEED REGULATORS 575 ‘
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SEC. 146] SPEED REGULATORS 577 havi
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SEC. 14.7] DYNAMOTORS 579 14.7. Dyn
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SEC.14.8] VIBRATOR POWER SUPPLIES 5
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SEC. 1410] FIXED LOCATIONS 583 port
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SEC. 14.13] ULTRAPORTABLE UNITS 585
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SEC. l’k~~] SHIP RADAR SYSTEMS 58
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SEC. 151] INTRODCCTIO,\- 589 the pr
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SEC, 152] NEED FOR SYSTEM TESTING 5
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SEC, 153] INITIAL PLANNING AND OBJE
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SEC. 15.4] THE RANGE EQUATION 595 n
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SEC. 15.5] CHOICE OF PULSE LENGTH 5
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SEC. 15.7] AZIMUTH SCAN RATE 599 to
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SEC. 15.8] CHOICE OF BEAM SHAPE 601
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SEC. 15.8] CHOICE OF BEAM SHAPE 603
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SEC. 15.9] CHOICE OF WAVELENGTH 605
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SEC. 15.10] COMPONENTS DESIGN 607 1
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SEC.16.11] MODIFICA TIO.VS A,YD ADD
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SEC. 15.12] DESIGN OBJECTIVES AND L
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SEC. 15.12] DESIGN OBJECTIVES AND L
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SEC. 15.13] GENERAL DESIGN OF THE A
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SEC. 15.14] DETAILED DESIGN OF THE
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SEC. 15.14] DETAILED DESIGN OF THE
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,/ / /“)4 Providenc~ (b) Fm. 16.1
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624 EXAMPLES OF RADAR SYSTEM DESIGN
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CHAPTER 16 MOVING-TARGET INDICATION
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628 MOVING-TARGET INDICATION [SEC,
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630 MOVING-TARGET INDICATION [SEC.
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632 MOVING TARGET INDICATION [SEC.
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. 646 MOVING- TARGET INDICATION [SE
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648 MOVING- TARGET lNDICA TION [SEC
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652 MOVING-TARGET INDICATION [SEC 1
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656 MOVING-TARGET INDICATION [SEC.1
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658 When o = Othe instead MOVING-TA
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662 MOVING TARGET INDICATION [SEC.1
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Page 670 and 671: 670 MO VINGTARGET INDICATION [SEC.
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Page 680 and 681: CHAPTER 17 RADAR RELAY BY L. J. HAW
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Page 690 and 691: h Video I 1 I Angle marks RADAR REL
Page 692 and 693: 692 [SEC. 175 ḇ 1 1 1 I ~ LKal tr
Page 694 and 695: 694 RADAR RELAY [SEC. 17.5 generato
Page 696 and 697: 696 RADAR RELAY [SEC. 17.6 station
Page 698 and 699: 698 RADAR RELAY [SEC. 17.6 Video si
Page 700 and 701: 700 RADAR RELAY [SEC. 176 train. Th
Page 702 and 703: 702 RADAR RELAY [SEC.17.7 be obtain
Page 704 and 705: 704 RADAR RELAY @EC. 17.7 illustrat
Page 706 and 707: [11 1 Bas,c pulse I %e pulse i ~--.
Page 708 and 709: 708 RADAR ltELA Y [SEC. 1743 wave f
Page 710 and 711: 710 RADAR RELAY [SEC. 17.8 actual m
Page 712 and 713: . 712 RADAR RELAY [SEC. 17.9 Such a
Page 714 and 715: 714 RADAR RELAY [SEC. 17.10 between
Page 718 and 719: 718 RADAR RELAY [SEC. 17.11 suppres
Page 720 and 721: 720 RADAR RELAY [SEC. 17.12 provide
Page 722 and 723: 722 RADAR RELAY [SEC. 17.13 relay l
Page 724 and 725: 724 RADAR RELAY [SEC. 17.14 TaLE 17
Page 726 and 727: 726 RADAR RELAY [SEC. 17.15 RADAR R
Page 728 and 729: 728 RADAR RELAY [SEC. 17.15 Modulat
Page 730 and 731: 730 RADAR RELAY [SEC. 17.15 the sec
Page 732 and 733: 732 RADAR RELAY [SEC. 17.10 pulses
Page 734 and 735: 734 RADAR RELAY [f+iEc.17.16 The vi
Page 737 and 738: Index A Absorbent materials, 69 Abs
Page 739 and 740: INDEX 739 B-scope, electrostatic, 5
Page 741 and 742: INDEX 741 Fairbank, W. M.,80 F Fan
Page 743 and 744: INDEX ’743 Microwave, reason for
Page 745 and 746: INDEX 745 Radar, pulse,3 range perf
Page 747 and 748: INDEX 747 Signal, interference of,
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Radar System Engineering

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