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References 119 specified and three equations of motion derived. By applying the equation of constraint i 1 − i 2 − i 3 = 0, it has been possible to condense all three equations of motion into a single expression. Note that each element in this expression has a unit of current (A). 3.14.4 Analogies Earlier, we considered mechanical, thermal, and electrical elements separately. However, the dynamic behavior of these systems is analogous. It is possible, for example, to take mechanical elements or thermal components, convert them into an equivalent electric circuit, and analyze the circuit using Kirchhoff’s laws. Table 3.4 gives the various lumped parameters for mechanical, thermal, and electrical circuits, together with their governing equations. For the mechanical components, Newton’s second law was used, and for thermal components, we apply Newton’s law of cooling. In the first column of Table 3.4 the linear mechanical elements and their equations in terms of force (F ) are given. In the second column are the linear thermal elements and their equations in terms of heat (Q). In the third and fourth columns are electrical analogies (capacitor, inductor, and resistor) in terms of voltage and current (V and i). These analogies may be quite useful in a practical assessment of a sensor and for the analysis of its mechanical and thermal interface with the object and the environment. References 1. Halliday, D. and Resnick, R. Fundamentals of Physics, 2nd ed. John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1986. 2. Crotzer, D.R. and Falcone, R. Method for manufacturing hygristors. U.S. patent 5,273,777; 1993. 3. Meissner, A. Über piezoelectrische Krystalle bei Hochfrequenz. Z. Tech. Phys. 8(74), 1927. 4. Neubert, H. K. P. Instrument transducers. An introduction to their performance and design, 2nd ed. Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1975. 5. Radice, P. F. Corona discharge poling process, U.S. patent 4,365, 283, 1982. 6. Southgate, P.D., Appl. Phys. Lett. 28, 250, 1976. 7. Jaffe, B., Cook, W. R., and Jaffe, H. Piezoelectric Ceramics. Academic Press, London, 1971. 8. Mason, W. P. Piezoelectric Crystals and Their Application to Ultrasonics. Van Nostrand, New York, 1950. 9. Megaw, H. D. Ferroelectricity in Crystals. Methuen, London, 1957. 10. Tamura, M., Yamaguchi, T., Oyaba, T., and Yoshimi, T. J. Audio Eng. Soc. 23(31) 1975. 11. Elliason, S. Electronic properties of piezoelectric polymers. Report TRITA-FYS 6665 from Dept. of Applied Physics, The Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm, Sweden, 1984. 12. Piezo Film Sensors Technical Manual. Measurement Specialties, Inc., Fairfield, NJ, 1999; available from www.msiusa.com.
120 Physical Principles of Sensing 13. Oikawa, A. and Toda, K. Preparation of Pb(Zr,Ti)O3 thin films by an electron beam evaporation technique. Appl. Phys. Lett. 29, 491, 1976. 14. Okada, A. Some electrical and optical properties of ferroelectric lead–zirconite– lead–titanate thin films. J. Appl. Phys., 48, 2905, 1977. 15. Castelano, R.N. and Feinstein, L.G. Ion-beam deposition of thin films of ferroelectric lead–zirconite–titanate (PZT). J. Appl. Phys., 50, 4406, 1979. 16. Adachi, H., et al. Ferroelectric (Pb, La)(Zr, Ti)O 3 epitaxial thin films on sapphire grown by RF-planar magnetron sputtering. J. Appl. Phys. 60, 736, 1986. 17. Ogawa, T., Senda S., and Kasanami, T. Preparation of ferroelectric thin films by RF sputtering. J. Appl. Phys. 28-2, 11–14, 1989. 18. Roy, D., Krupanidhi, S. B., and Dougherty, J. Excimer laser ablated lead zirconite titanate thin films. J. Appl. Phys. 69, 1, 1991. 19. Yi, G., Wu, Z., and Sayer, M. Preparation of PZT thin film by sol-gel processing: electrical, optical, and electro-optic properties. J. Appl. Phys. 64(5), 2717–2724, 1988. 20. Kawai, H. The piezoelectricity of poly(vinylidene fluoride). Jpn. J. of Appl. Phys. 8, 975–976, 1969. 21. Meixner, H., Mader, G., and Kleinschmidt, P. Infrared sensors based on the pyroelectric polymer polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF). Siemens Forsch. Entwicl. Ber. Bd. 15(3), 105–114, 1986. 22. Kleinschmidt, P. Piezo- und pyroelektrische Effekte. In: Sensorik. W. Heyward. Springer, Heidelberg, 1984, Chap. 6. 23. Semiconductor Sensors. Data Handbook. Philips Export B.V, Eindhoven, 1988. 24. Ye, C., Tamagawa, T., and Polla, D.L. Pyroelectric PbTiO 3 thin films for microsensor applications. In: Transducers’91. International conference on Solid- State Sensors and Actuators. Digest of Technical Papers, Schooley, J., ed. IEEE, New York, 1991, pp. 904–907. 25. Beer, A. C. Galvanomagnetic Effect in Semiconductors. Solid State Physics. F. Seitz and D. Turnbull, eds. Academic Press, New York, 1963. 26. Putlye, E. H. The Hall Effect and Related Phenomena. Semiconductor monographs., Hogarth, ed. Butterworths, London, 1960. 27. Sprague Hall Effect and Optoelectronic Sensors. Data Book SN-500, 1987. 28. Williams, J. Thermocouple measurement, In: Linear applications handbook, Linear Technology Corp., 1990. 29. Seebeck, T., Dr. Magnetische Polarisation der Metalle und Erze durch TemperaturDifferenz. Abhaandulgen der Preussischen Akademic der Wissenschaften, pp. 265–373, 1822–1823. 30. Benedict, R. P. Fundamentals of Temperature, Pressure, and Flow Measurements, 3rd ed. John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1984. 31. LeChatelier, H. Copt. Tend., 102, 1886. 32. Carter, E. F. ed., Dictionary of Inventions and Discoveries. Crane, Russak and Co., New York, 1966. 33. Peltier, J.C.A. Investigation of the heat developed by electric currents in homogeneous materials and at the junction of two different conductors, Ann. Phys. Chem., 56, 1834.
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HANDBOOK OF MODERN SENSORS PHYSICS,
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HANDBOOK OF MODERN SENSORS PHYSICS,
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To the memory of my father
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Preface Seven years have passed sin
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Contents Preface ..................
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Contents XI 4.5 Lenses ............
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Contents XIII 7.7.1 Micropower Impu
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Contents XV 15 Radiation Detectors
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Contents XVII Table A.9 Physical Pr
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1 Data Acquisition “It’s as lar
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1.1 Sensors, Signals, and Systems 3
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1.1 Sensors, Signals, and Systems 5
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1.2 Sensor Classification 7 oscillo
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1.3 Units of Measurements 9 Table 1
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Table 1.7. SI Basic Units Reference
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2 Sensor Characteristics “O, what
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2.2 Span (Full-Scale Input) 15 Fig.
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2.4 Accuracy 17 2.4 Accuracy Avery
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2.6 Calibration Error 19 To compute
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2.8 Nonlinearity 21 Fig. 2.4. Trans
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2.12 Resolution 23 (A) (B) Fig. 2.7
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2.16 Dynamic Characteristics 25 2.1
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2.16 Dynamic Characteristics 27 Sub
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2.17 Environmental Factors 29 2.17
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2.18 Reliability 31 guide. For inst
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2.20 Uncertainty 33 • Thermal sho
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Table 2.2. Uncertainty Budget for T
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3 Physical Principles of Sensing
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3.1 Electric Charges, Fields, and P
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3.2 Capacitance 45 The capacitor ma
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3.2 Capacitance 47 (A) (B) Fig. 3.6
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3.2 Capacitance 49 h 0 (A) (B) Fig.
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3.3 Magnetism 51 N S S N (A) (B) Fi
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3.3 Magnetism 53 electric charge ca
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3.3 Magnetism 55 3.3.3 Toroid Anoth
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3.4 Induction 57 • Changing the o
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3.5 Resistance 59 Fig. 3.16. Voltag
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3.5 Resistance 61 For pure resistan
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3.5 Resistance 63 resistor) and the
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3.5 Resistance 65 Fig. 3.19. Strain
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3.6 Piezoelectric Effect 67 (A) (B)
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Page 98 and 99: 3.7 Pyroelectric Effect 79 through
Page 100 and 101: 3.7 Pyroelectric Effect 81 Fig. 3.2
Page 102 and 103: 3.8 Hall Effect 83 Fig. 3.30. Hall
Page 104 and 105: Table 3.2. Typical Characteristics
Page 106 and 107: 3.9 Seebeck and Peltier Effects 87
Page 112 and 113: 3.10 Sound Waves 93 If we consider
Page 114 and 115: 3.11 Temperature and Thermal Proper
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Page 118 and 119: 3.12 Heat Transfer 99 to about 35
Page 120 and 121: 3.12 Heat Transfer 101 (A) (B) Fig.
Page 122 and 123: 3.12 Heat Transfer 103 Fig. 3.41. S
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Page 126 and 127: 3.12 Heat Transfer 107 Fig. 3.44. W
Page 128 and 129: 3.12 Heat Transfer 109 (A) (B) Fig.
Page 130 and 131: 3.13 Light 111 [38] whose emissivit
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Page 140 and 141: References 121 34. Thomson, W. On t
Page 142 and 143: 124 4 Optical Components of Sensors
Page 168 and 169: 150 Optical Components of Sensors 1
Page 170 and 171: 5 Interface Electronic Circuits 5.1
Page 172 and 173: 5.1 Input Characteristics of Interf
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Page 176 and 177: 5.2 Amplifiers 157 (A) (B) Fig. 5.5
Page 178 and 179: 5.2 Amplifiers 159 Fig. 5.7. Voltag
Page 180 and 181: 5.2 Amplifiers 161 (A) (B) Fig. 5.9
Page 182 and 183: 5.2 Amplifiers 163 Fig. 5.11. An eq
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5.3 Excitation Circuits 169 Fig. 5.
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5.3 Excitation Circuits 171 atures.
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5.3 Excitation Circuits 173 (A) (B)
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5.4 Analog-to-Digital Converters 17
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Table 5.2. Binary Bit Weights and R
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5.5 Direct Digitization and Process
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5.5 Direct Digitization and Process
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5.6 Ratiometric Circuits 191 (A) (B
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5.7 Bridge Circuits 193 determine t
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5.7 Bridge Circuits 195 Fig. 5.38.
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5.7 Bridge Circuits 197 Fig. 5.39.
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It can be solved for the temperatur
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5.8 Data Transmission 201 (A) (B) (
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5.8 Data Transmission 203 wire meth
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5.9 Noise in Sensors and Circuits 2
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5.10 Batteries for Low Power Sensor
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References 225 nickel-metal hydrate
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6 Occupancy and Motion Detectors Se
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6.2 Microwave Motion Detectors 229
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6.2 Microwave Motion Detectors 231
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6.3 Capacitive Occupancy Detectors
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6.3 Capacitive Occupancy Detectors
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6.4 Triboelectric Detectors 237 6.4
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6.5 Optoelectronic Motion Detectors
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and the facet pitch is 6.5 Optoelec
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References 251 Fig. 6.17. Calculate
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7 Position, Displacement, and Level
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7.1 Potentiometric Sensors 255 (A)
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7.2 Gravitational Sensors 257 (A) (
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7.3 Capacitive Sensors 259 (A) (B)
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7.3 Capacitive Sensors 261 Fig. 7.7
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7.4 Inductive and Magnetic Sensors
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7.5 Optical Sensors 275 Therefore,
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7.5 Optical Sensors 277 (A) (B) (C)
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7.5 Optical Sensors 279 (A) (B) Fig
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7.5 Optical Sensors 281 Fig. 7.32.
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7.5 Optical Sensors 283 (A) (B) (C)
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7.5 Optical Sensors 285 is proporti
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7.6 Ultrasonic Sensors 287 (A) (B)
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7.7 Radar Sensors 289 (A) (B) Fig.
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7.7 Radar Sensors 291 (A) (B) Fig.
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7.8 Thickness and Level Sensors 293
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References 299 8. Dakin, J. P., Wad
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8 Velocity and Acceleration Acceler
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8.1 Accelerometer Characteristics 3
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8.2 Capacitive Accelerometers 305 a
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8.3 Piezoresistive Accelerometers 3
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8.5 Thermal Accelerometers 309 Fig.
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8.5 Thermal Accelerometers 311 forc
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8.6 Gyroscopes 313 8.6 Gyroscopes N
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8.6 Gyroscopes 315 (A) (B) Fig. 8.1
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8.6 Gyroscopes 317 Products Company
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8.7 Piezoelectric Cables 319 (A) (B
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References 321 (A) (B) Fig. 8.16.Ap
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9 Force, Strain, and Tactile Sensor
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9.1 Strain Gauges 325 (A) (B) Fig.
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9.2 Tactile Sensors 327 9.2 Tactile
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9.2 Tactile Sensors 329 (A) (B) Fig
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9.2 Tactile Sensors 331 Fig. 9.7. P
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9.2 Tactile Sensors 333 Fig. 9.9. T
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9.3 Piezoelectric Force Sensors 335
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References 337 14. Karrer, E. and L
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10 Pressure Sensors “To learn som
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10.3 Mercury Pressure Sensor 341 1
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10.4 Bellows, Membranes, and Thin P
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10.5 Piezoresistive Sensors 345 Fig
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10.5 Piezoresistive Sensors 347 bri
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10.6 Capacitive Sensors 349 (A) (B)
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10.7 VRP Sensors 351 (A) (B) Fig. 1
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10.8 Optoelectronic Sensors 353 Fig
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10.9 Vacuum Sensors 355 (A) (B) Fig
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References 357 (A) (B) (C) Fig. 10.
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11 Flow Sensors It’s a simple tas
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11.2 Pressure Gradient Technique 36
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11.3 Thermal Transport Sensors 363
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11.3 Thermal Transport Sensors 365
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11.4 Ultrasonic Sensors 367 A senso
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11.4 Ultrasonic Sensors 369 Fig. 11
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induced in the liquid. The magnitud
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11.6 Microflow Sensors 373 (A) (B)
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11.7 Breeze Sensor 375 (A) (B) Fig.
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11.9 Drag Force Flow Sensors 377 Wi
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References 379 11. Philip-Chandy, R
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12 Acoustic Sensors “Your ears wi
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12.3 Fiber-Optic Microphone 383 (A)
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12.4 Piezoelectric Microphones 385
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12.5 Electret Microphones 387 Fig.
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12.6 Solid-State Acoustic Detectors
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References 391 References 1. Hohm,
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13 Humidity and Moisture Sensors 13
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13.1 Concept of Humidity 395 Table
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13.2 Capacitive Sensors 397 Fig. 13
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13.3 Electrical Conductivity Sensor
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13.4 Thermal Conductivity Sensor 40
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13.6 Oscillating Hygrometer 403 chi
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References 405 9. Jachowicz, R. S.
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14 Light Detectors “There is noth
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14.1 Introduction 409 Table 14.1. B
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14.2 Photodiodes 411 Maximum revers
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14.2 Photodiodes 413 when i = 0), w
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14.2 Photodiodes 415 (A) (B) (C) Fi
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14.2 Photodiodes 417 Fig. 14.9. Res
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14.3 Phototransistor 419 Fig. 14.12
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14.4 Photoresistors 421 (A) (B) Fig
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14.5 Cooled Detectors 423 (A) (B) F
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14.6 Thermal Detectors 425 Table 14
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14.6 Thermal Detectors 427 Fig. 14.
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Table 14.3. Typical Specifications
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14.6 Thermal Detectors 431 A dual e
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14.6 Thermal Detectors 433 Fig. 14.
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14.6 Thermal Detectors 435 (A) (B)
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14.6 Thermal Detectors 437 Section
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14.7 Gas Flame Detectors 439 P = V
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References 441 housing assures wide
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15 Radiation Detectors Figure 3.41
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15.1 Scintillating Detectors 445 Fi
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15.2 Ionization Detectors 447 emitt
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15.2 Ionization Detectors 449 Fig.
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15.2 Ionization Detectors 451 parti
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15.2 Ionization Detectors 453 There
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References 455 the pure intrinsic t
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16 Temperature Sensors When a scien
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16 Temperature Sensors 459 from whi
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16.1 Thermoresistive Sensors 461 2.
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16.1 Thermoresistive Sensors 463 Ta
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16.1 Thermoresistive Sensors 465 Fi
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16.1 Thermoresistive Sensors 467 pr
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16.1 Thermoresistive Sensors 475 (m
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16.2 Thermoelectric Contact Sensors
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16.3 Semiconductor P-N Junction Sen
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16.4 Optical Temperature Sensors 49
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16.4 Optical Temperature Sensors 49
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16.5 Acoustic Temperature Sensor 49
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References 497 plate—the so-calle
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17 Chemical Sensors 1 Chemical sens
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17.3 Classification of Chemical-Sen
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17.4 Direct Sensors 503 17.4 Direct
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17.4 Direct Sensors 505 voltage e.
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17.4 Direct Sensors 507 This reacti
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17.4 Direct Sensors 509 (A) (B) Fig
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17.4 Direct Sensors 511 µm thick a
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17.5 Complex Sensors 513 Fig. 17.11
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17.5 Complex Sensors 515 Fig. 17.12
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17.5 Complex Sensors 517 frequency
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Table 17.1. SAW Chemical Sensors 17
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17.6 Chemical Sensors Versus Instru
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References 531 13. LaCourse, W.R. P
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18 Sensor Materials and Technologie
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18.1 Materials 535 etching is a key
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18.1 Materials 537 Fig. 18.3. The a
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18.1 Materials 539 The following is
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18.1 Materials 541 should be consid
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18.2 Surface Processing 543 sensor
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18.2 Surface Processing 545 On a co
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18.3 Nano-Technology 547 6000-Å la
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18.3 Nano-Technology 549 exposed to
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18.3 Nano-Technology 551 Fig. 18.10
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18.3 Nano-Technology 553 (A) (B) Fi
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References 555 Fig. 18.17. Bonding
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Appendix Table A.1. Chemical Symbol
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Table A.4. SI Conversion Multiples
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Table A.4 Continued Light cd/in. 2
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Table A.4 Continued Cup 2.36588 ×
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Appendix 565 Table A.7. Some Materi
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Appendix 567 Table A.11. Thermoelec
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Table A.14. Mechanical Properties o
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Appendix 571 Table A.18. Typical Em
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Table A.20. Characteristics of C-Zn
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Table A.23 Continued Manufacturer P
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Table A.25. Properties of Glasses S
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Index α-particles, 443 A/D, 175, 1
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Index 581 Coulomb’s law, 40 cross
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Index 583 H 2 O, 108 Hall, 82 Hall
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Index 585 occupancy sensors, 227 od
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Index 587 SAW, 75, 388, 404, 496, 5
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Index 589 velocity sensor, 302 vert
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