handbook of modern sensors

More documents

Recommendations

Info

14.7 Gas Flame Detectors 439 P = V 2 /R. (14.32) Let us assume that the AFIR sensor is used in a radiation thermometer. Its output signal should be representative of the object’s temperature T b that is to be measured. Substituting Eq. (3.138) of Chapter 3 and Eqs. (14.31) and (14.32) into Eq. (14.30), assuming that T = T b and T s >T a , after simple manipulations the object’s temperature may be presented as a function of voltage V across the heating element: [ ] T b = √T 4 s 4 − 1 V 2 Aσ ε s ε b R − α s(T s − T a ) . (14.33) The coefficient α s is the thermal conductivity from the AFIR detector to the environment (housing). Contrary to a PIR detector, an AFIR sensor is active and can generate a signal only when it works in concert with a control circuit. A control circuit must include the following essential components: a reference to the preset temperature, an error amplifier, and a driver stage. In addition, it may include an RC network for correcting a loop response function and for stabilizing its operation, otherwise an entire system may be prone to oscillations [17]. It may be noted that an AFIR sensor along with its control circuit is a direct converter of thermal radiative power into electric voltage and is quite an efficient one. Its typical responsivity is in the range of 3000 V/W, which is much higher compared to a thermopile whose typical responsivity is in the range of 100 V/W. An efficient way to fabricate an AFIR sensor would be by MEMS technology. In fact, an AFIR sensor is a close relative of a bolometer as described in the previous section. It just needs to be provided with a heater that can be deposited beneath the bolometer temperature-sensing element. 14.7 Gas Flame Detectors Detection of a gas flame is very important for security and fire prevention systems. In many respects, it is a more sensitive way to detect fire than a smoke detector, especially outdoors, where smoke concentration may not reach a threshold level for alarm triggering. To detect burning gas, it is possible to use a unique feature of the flame: A noticeable portion of its optical spectrum is located in the UV spectral range (Fig. 14.29). After passing through the atmosphere, sunlight loses a large portion of its UV spectrum located below 250 nm, whereas a gas flame contains UV components down to 180 nm. This makes it possible to design a narrow-bandwidth element for the UV spectral range which is selectively sensitive to flame and not sensitive to sunlight or electric lights. An example of such a device is shown in Fig. 14.30A. The element is a UV detector that makes use of a photoelectric effect in metals along with the gas multiplication effect (see Chapter 14). The detector is a rare-gas-filled tube. The UV-transparent
440 14 Light Detectors Fig. 14.29. Electromagnetic spectra of various sources. (Courtesy of Hamamatsu Photonics K.K.) (A) (B) (C) Fig. 14.30. UV flame detector. (A) a glass-filled tube; (B) angle of view in horizontal plane; (C) recommended operating circuit. (Courtesy of Hamamatsu Photonics K.K.)
Page 2 and 3:
HANDBOOK OF MODERN SENSORS PHYSICS,
Page 4 and 5:
HANDBOOK OF MODERN SENSORS PHYSICS,
Page 6 and 7:
To the memory of my father
Page 8 and 9:
Preface Seven years have passed sin
Page 10 and 11:
Contents Preface ..................
Page 12 and 13:
Contents XI 4.5 Lenses ............
Page 14 and 15:
Contents XIII 7.7.1 Micropower Impu
Page 16 and 17:
Contents XV 15 Radiation Detectors
Page 18 and 19:
Contents XVII Table A.9 Physical Pr
Page 20 and 21:
1 Data Acquisition “It’s as lar
Page 22 and 23:
1.1 Sensors, Signals, and Systems 3
Page 24 and 25:
1.1 Sensors, Signals, and Systems 5
Page 26 and 27:
1.2 Sensor Classification 7 oscillo
Page 28 and 29:
1.3 Units of Measurements 9 Table 1
Page 30 and 31:
Table 1.7. SI Basic Units Reference
Page 32 and 33:
2 Sensor Characteristics “O, what
Page 34 and 35:
2.2 Span (Full-Scale Input) 15 Fig.
Page 36 and 37:
2.4 Accuracy 17 2.4 Accuracy Avery
Page 38 and 39:
2.6 Calibration Error 19 To compute
Page 40 and 41:
2.8 Nonlinearity 21 Fig. 2.4. Trans
Page 42 and 43:
2.12 Resolution 23 (A) (B) Fig. 2.7
Page 44 and 45:
2.16 Dynamic Characteristics 25 2.1
Page 46 and 47:
2.16 Dynamic Characteristics 27 Sub
Page 48 and 49:
2.17 Environmental Factors 29 2.17
Page 50 and 51:
2.18 Reliability 31 guide. For inst
Page 52 and 53:
2.20 Uncertainty 33 • Thermal sho
Page 54 and 55:
Table 2.2. Uncertainty Budget for T
Page 56 and 57:
3 Physical Principles of Sensing
Page 58 and 59:
3.1 Electric Charges, Fields, and P
Page 60 and 61:
Page 62 and 63:
Page 64 and 65:
3.2 Capacitance 45 The capacitor ma
Page 66 and 67:
3.2 Capacitance 47 (A) (B) Fig. 3.6
Page 68 and 69:
3.2 Capacitance 49 h 0 (A) (B) Fig.
Page 70 and 71:
3.3 Magnetism 51 N S S N (A) (B) Fi
Page 72 and 73:
3.3 Magnetism 53 electric charge ca
Page 74 and 75:
3.3 Magnetism 55 3.3.3 Toroid Anoth
Page 76 and 77:
3.4 Induction 57 • Changing the o
Page 78 and 79:
3.5 Resistance 59 Fig. 3.16. Voltag
Page 80 and 81:
3.5 Resistance 61 For pure resistan
Page 82 and 83:
3.5 Resistance 63 resistor) and the
Page 84 and 85:
3.5 Resistance 65 Fig. 3.19. Strain
Page 86 and 87:
3.6 Piezoelectric Effect 67 (A) (B)
Page 88 and 89:
3.6 Piezoelectric Effect 69 Another
Page 90 and 91:
3.6 Piezoelectric Effect 71 Another
Page 92 and 93:
3.6 Piezoelectric Effect 73 absorpt
Page 94 and 95:
3.6 Piezoelectric Effect 75 that en
Page 96 and 97:
3.7 Pyroelectric Effect 77 circuit
Page 98 and 99:
3.7 Pyroelectric Effect 79 through
Page 100 and 101:
3.7 Pyroelectric Effect 81 Fig. 3.2
Page 102 and 103:
3.8 Hall Effect 83 Fig. 3.30. Hall
Page 104 and 105:
Table 3.2. Typical Characteristics
Page 106 and 107:
3.9 Seebeck and Peltier Effects 87
Page 108 and 109:
Page 110 and 111:
Page 112 and 113:
3.10 Sound Waves 93 If we consider
Page 114 and 115:
3.11 Temperature and Thermal Proper
Page 116 and 117:
3.11 Temperature and Thermal Proper
Page 118 and 119:
3.12 Heat Transfer 99 to about 35
Page 120 and 121:
3.12 Heat Transfer 101 (A) (B) Fig.
Page 122 and 123:
3.12 Heat Transfer 103 Fig. 3.41. S
Page 124 and 125:
3.12 Heat Transfer 105 Fig. 3.42. S
Page 126 and 127:
3.12 Heat Transfer 107 Fig. 3.44. W
Page 128 and 129:
3.12 Heat Transfer 109 (A) (B) Fig.
Page 130 and 131:
3.13 Light 111 [38] whose emissivit
Page 132 and 133:
3.14 Dynamic Models of Sensor Eleme
Page 134 and 135:
Page 136 and 137:
Page 138 and 139:
References 119 specified and three
Page 140 and 141:
References 121 34. Thomson, W. On t
Page 142 and 143:
124 4 Optical Components of Sensors
Page 144 and 145:
Page 146 and 147:
Page 148 and 149:
Page 150 and 151:
Page 152 and 153:
Page 154 and 155:
Page 156 and 157:
Page 158 and 159:
Page 160 and 161:
Page 162 and 163:
Page 164 and 165:
Page 166 and 167:
Page 168 and 169:
150 Optical Components of Sensors 1
Page 170 and 171:
5 Interface Electronic Circuits 5.1
Page 172 and 173:
5.1 Input Characteristics of Interf
Page 174 and 175:
5.1 Input Characteristics of Interf
Page 176 and 177:
5.2 Amplifiers 157 (A) (B) Fig. 5.5
Page 178 and 179:
5.2 Amplifiers 159 Fig. 5.7. Voltag
Page 180 and 181:
5.2 Amplifiers 161 (A) (B) Fig. 5.9
Page 182 and 183:
5.2 Amplifiers 163 Fig. 5.11. An eq
Page 184 and 185:
5.3 Excitation Circuits 165 5.3.1 C
Page 186 and 187:
5.3 Excitation Circuits 167 (A) (B)
Page 188 and 189:
5.3 Excitation Circuits 169 Fig. 5.
Page 190 and 191:
5.3 Excitation Circuits 171 atures.
Page 192 and 193:
5.3 Excitation Circuits 173 (A) (B)
Page 194 and 195:
5.4 Analog-to-Digital Converters 17
Page 196 and 197:
Table 5.2. Binary Bit Weights and R
Page 198 and 199:
Page 200 and 201:
Page 202 and 203:
Page 204 and 205:
Page 206 and 207:
5.5 Direct Digitization and Process
Page 208 and 209:
5.5 Direct Digitization and Process
Page 210 and 211:
5.6 Ratiometric Circuits 191 (A) (B
Page 212 and 213:
5.7 Bridge Circuits 193 determine t
Page 214 and 215:
5.7 Bridge Circuits 195 Fig. 5.38.
Page 216 and 217:
5.7 Bridge Circuits 197 Fig. 5.39.
Page 218 and 219:
It can be solved for the temperatur
Page 220 and 221:
5.8 Data Transmission 201 (A) (B) (
Page 222 and 223:
5.8 Data Transmission 203 wire meth
Page 224 and 225:
5.9 Noise in Sensors and Circuits 2
Page 226 and 227:
Page 228 and 229:
Page 230 and 231:
Page 232 and 233:
Page 234 and 235:
Page 236 and 237:
Page 238 and 239:
Page 240 and 241:
Page 242 and 243:
5.10 Batteries for Low Power Sensor
Page 244 and 245:
References 225 nickel-metal hydrate
Page 246 and 247:
6 Occupancy and Motion Detectors Se
Page 248 and 249:
6.2 Microwave Motion Detectors 229
Page 250 and 251:
6.2 Microwave Motion Detectors 231
Page 252 and 253:
6.3 Capacitive Occupancy Detectors
Page 254 and 255:
6.3 Capacitive Occupancy Detectors
Page 256 and 257:
6.4 Triboelectric Detectors 237 6.4
Page 258 and 259:
6.5 Optoelectronic Motion Detectors
Page 260 and 261:
Page 262 and 263:
and the facet pitch is 6.5 Optoelec
Page 264 and 265:
Page 266 and 267:
Page 268 and 269:
Page 270 and 271:
References 251 Fig. 6.17. Calculate
Page 272 and 273:
7 Position, Displacement, and Level
Page 274 and 275:
7.1 Potentiometric Sensors 255 (A)
Page 276 and 277:
7.2 Gravitational Sensors 257 (A) (
Page 278 and 279:
7.3 Capacitive Sensors 259 (A) (B)
Page 280 and 281:
7.3 Capacitive Sensors 261 Fig. 7.7
Page 282 and 283:
7.4 Inductive and Magnetic Sensors
Page 284 and 285:
Page 286 and 287:
Page 288 and 289:
Page 290 and 291:
Page 292 and 293:
Page 294 and 295:
7.5 Optical Sensors 275 Therefore,
Page 296 and 297:
7.5 Optical Sensors 277 (A) (B) (C)
Page 298 and 299:
7.5 Optical Sensors 279 (A) (B) Fig
Page 300 and 301:
7.5 Optical Sensors 281 Fig. 7.32.
Page 302 and 303:
7.5 Optical Sensors 283 (A) (B) (C)
Page 304 and 305:
7.5 Optical Sensors 285 is proporti
Page 306 and 307:
7.6 Ultrasonic Sensors 287 (A) (B)
Page 308 and 309:
7.7 Radar Sensors 289 (A) (B) Fig.
Page 310 and 311:
7.7 Radar Sensors 291 (A) (B) Fig.
Page 312 and 313:
7.8 Thickness and Level Sensors 293
Page 314 and 315:
Page 316 and 317:
Page 318 and 319:
References 299 8. Dakin, J. P., Wad
Page 320 and 321:
8 Velocity and Acceleration Acceler
Page 322 and 323:
8.1 Accelerometer Characteristics 3
Page 324 and 325:
8.2 Capacitive Accelerometers 305 a
Page 326 and 327:
8.3 Piezoresistive Accelerometers 3
Page 328 and 329:
8.5 Thermal Accelerometers 309 Fig.
Page 330 and 331:
8.5 Thermal Accelerometers 311 forc
Page 332 and 333:
8.6 Gyroscopes 313 8.6 Gyroscopes N
Page 334 and 335:
8.6 Gyroscopes 315 (A) (B) Fig. 8.1
Page 336 and 337:
8.6 Gyroscopes 317 Products Company
Page 338 and 339:
8.7 Piezoelectric Cables 319 (A) (B
Page 340 and 341:
References 321 (A) (B) Fig. 8.16.Ap
Page 342 and 343:
9 Force, Strain, and Tactile Sensor
Page 344 and 345:
9.1 Strain Gauges 325 (A) (B) Fig.
Page 346 and 347:
9.2 Tactile Sensors 327 9.2 Tactile
Page 348 and 349:
9.2 Tactile Sensors 329 (A) (B) Fig
Page 350 and 351:
9.2 Tactile Sensors 331 Fig. 9.7. P
Page 352 and 353:
9.2 Tactile Sensors 333 Fig. 9.9. T
Page 354 and 355:
9.3 Piezoelectric Force Sensors 335
Page 356 and 357:
References 337 14. Karrer, E. and L
Page 358 and 359:
10 Pressure Sensors “To learn som
Page 360 and 361:
10.3 Mercury Pressure Sensor 341 1
Page 362 and 363:
10.4 Bellows, Membranes, and Thin P
Page 364 and 365:
10.5 Piezoresistive Sensors 345 Fig
Page 366 and 367:
10.5 Piezoresistive Sensors 347 bri
Page 368 and 369:
10.6 Capacitive Sensors 349 (A) (B)
Page 370 and 371:
10.7 VRP Sensors 351 (A) (B) Fig. 1
Page 372 and 373:
10.8 Optoelectronic Sensors 353 Fig
Page 374 and 375:
10.9 Vacuum Sensors 355 (A) (B) Fig
Page 376 and 377:
References 357 (A) (B) (C) Fig. 10.
Page 378 and 379:
11 Flow Sensors It’s a simple tas
Page 380 and 381:
11.2 Pressure Gradient Technique 36
Page 382 and 383:
11.3 Thermal Transport Sensors 363
Page 384 and 385:
11.3 Thermal Transport Sensors 365
Page 386 and 387:
11.4 Ultrasonic Sensors 367 A senso
Page 388 and 389:
11.4 Ultrasonic Sensors 369 Fig. 11
Page 390 and 391:
induced in the liquid. The magnitud
Page 392 and 393:
11.6 Microflow Sensors 373 (A) (B)
Page 394 and 395:
11.7 Breeze Sensor 375 (A) (B) Fig.
Page 396 and 397:
11.9 Drag Force Flow Sensors 377 Wi
Page 398 and 399:
References 379 11. Philip-Chandy, R
Page 400 and 401:
12 Acoustic Sensors “Your ears wi
Page 402 and 403:
12.3 Fiber-Optic Microphone 383 (A)
Page 404 and 405:
12.4 Piezoelectric Microphones 385
Page 406 and 407:
12.5 Electret Microphones 387 Fig.
Page 408 and 409: 12.6 Solid-State Acoustic Detectors
Page 410 and 411: References 391 References 1. Hohm,
Page 412 and 413: 13 Humidity and Moisture Sensors 13
Page 414 and 415: 13.1 Concept of Humidity 395 Table
Page 416 and 417: 13.2 Capacitive Sensors 397 Fig. 13
Page 418 and 419: 13.3 Electrical Conductivity Sensor
Page 420 and 421: 13.4 Thermal Conductivity Sensor 40
Page 422 and 423: 13.6 Oscillating Hygrometer 403 chi
Page 424 and 425: References 405 9. Jachowicz, R. S.
Page 426 and 427: 14 Light Detectors “There is noth
Page 428 and 429: 14.1 Introduction 409 Table 14.1. B
Page 430 and 431: 14.2 Photodiodes 411 Maximum revers
Page 432 and 433: 14.2 Photodiodes 413 when i = 0), w
Page 434 and 435: 14.2 Photodiodes 415 (A) (B) (C) Fi
Page 436 and 437: 14.2 Photodiodes 417 Fig. 14.9. Res
Page 438 and 439: 14.3 Phototransistor 419 Fig. 14.12
Page 440 and 441: 14.4 Photoresistors 421 (A) (B) Fig
Page 442 and 443: 14.5 Cooled Detectors 423 (A) (B) F
Page 444 and 445: 14.6 Thermal Detectors 425 Table 14
Page 446 and 447: 14.6 Thermal Detectors 427 Fig. 14.
Page 448 and 449: Table 14.3. Typical Specifications
Page 450 and 451: 14.6 Thermal Detectors 431 A dual e
Page 452 and 453: 14.6 Thermal Detectors 433 Fig. 14.
Page 454 and 455: 14.6 Thermal Detectors 435 (A) (B)
Page 456 and 457: 14.6 Thermal Detectors 437 Section
Page 460 and 461: References 441 housing assures wide
Page 462 and 463: 15 Radiation Detectors Figure 3.41
Page 464 and 465: 15.1 Scintillating Detectors 445 Fi
Page 466 and 467: 15.2 Ionization Detectors 447 emitt
Page 468 and 469: 15.2 Ionization Detectors 449 Fig.
Page 470 and 471: 15.2 Ionization Detectors 451 parti
Page 472 and 473: 15.2 Ionization Detectors 453 There
Page 474 and 475: References 455 the pure intrinsic t
Page 476 and 477: 16 Temperature Sensors When a scien
Page 478 and 479: 16 Temperature Sensors 459 from whi
Page 480 and 481: 16.1 Thermoresistive Sensors 461 2.
Page 482 and 483: 16.1 Thermoresistive Sensors 463 Ta
Page 484 and 485: 16.1 Thermoresistive Sensors 465 Fi
Page 486 and 487: 16.1 Thermoresistive Sensors 467 pr
Page 494 and 495: 16.1 Thermoresistive Sensors 475 (m
Page 500 and 501: 16.2 Thermoelectric Contact Sensors
Page 508 and 509:
16.3 Semiconductor P-N Junction Sen
Page 510 and 511:
16.4 Optical Temperature Sensors 49
Page 512 and 513:
16.4 Optical Temperature Sensors 49
Page 514 and 515:
16.5 Acoustic Temperature Sensor 49
Page 516 and 517:
References 497 plate—the so-calle
Page 518 and 519:
17 Chemical Sensors 1 Chemical sens
Page 520 and 521:
17.3 Classification of Chemical-Sen
Page 522 and 523:
17.4 Direct Sensors 503 17.4 Direct
Page 524 and 525:
17.4 Direct Sensors 505 voltage e.
Page 526 and 527:
17.4 Direct Sensors 507 This reacti
Page 528 and 529:
17.4 Direct Sensors 509 (A) (B) Fig
Page 530 and 531:
17.4 Direct Sensors 511 µm thick a
Page 532 and 533:
17.5 Complex Sensors 513 Fig. 17.11
Page 534 and 535:
17.5 Complex Sensors 515 Fig. 17.12
Page 536 and 537:
17.5 Complex Sensors 517 frequency
Page 538 and 539:
Table 17.1. SAW Chemical Sensors 17
Page 540 and 541:
17.6 Chemical Sensors Versus Instru
Page 542 and 543:
Page 544 and 545:
Page 546 and 547:
Page 548 and 549:
Page 550 and 551:
References 531 13. LaCourse, W.R. P
Page 552 and 553:
18 Sensor Materials and Technologie
Page 554 and 555:
18.1 Materials 535 etching is a key
Page 556 and 557:
18.1 Materials 537 Fig. 18.3. The a
Page 558 and 559:
18.1 Materials 539 The following is
Page 560 and 561:
18.1 Materials 541 should be consid
Page 562 and 563:
18.2 Surface Processing 543 sensor
Page 564 and 565:
18.2 Surface Processing 545 On a co
Page 566 and 567:
18.3 Nano-Technology 547 6000-Å la
Page 568 and 569:
18.3 Nano-Technology 549 exposed to
Page 570 and 571:
18.3 Nano-Technology 551 Fig. 18.10
Page 572 and 573:
18.3 Nano-Technology 553 (A) (B) Fi
Page 574 and 575:
References 555 Fig. 18.17. Bonding
Page 576 and 577:
Appendix Table A.1. Chemical Symbol
Page 578 and 579:
Table A.4. SI Conversion Multiples
Page 580 and 581:
Table A.4 Continued Light cd/in. 2
Page 582 and 583:
Table A.4 Continued Cup 2.36588 ×
Page 584 and 585:
Appendix 565 Table A.7. Some Materi
Page 586 and 587:
Appendix 567 Table A.11. Thermoelec
Page 588 and 589:
Table A.14. Mechanical Properties o
Page 590 and 591:
Appendix 571 Table A.18. Typical Em
Page 592 and 593:
Table A.20. Characteristics of C-Zn
Page 594 and 595:
Table A.23 Continued Manufacturer P
Page 596 and 597:
Table A.25. Properties of Glasses S
Page 598 and 599:
Index α-particles, 443 A/D, 175, 1
Page 600 and 601:
Index 581 Coulomb’s law, 40 cross
Page 602 and 603:
Index 583 H 2 O, 108 Hall, 82 Hall
Page 604 and 605:
Index 585 occupancy sensors, 227 od
Page 606 and 607:
Index 587 SAW, 75, 388, 404, 496, 5
Page 608:
Index 589 velocity sensor, 302 vert
show all

handbook of modern sensors

You also want an ePaper? Increase the reach of your titles

Delete template?

Save as template?