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5.4 Analog-to-Digital Converters 175 cured by large bypass capacitors (on the order of 10 µF) across the power supply or the so-called Q-spoilers consisting of a serial connection of a 3–10 resistor and a disk ceramic capacitor connected from the power-supply pins of the driver chip to ground. To make a driver stage more tolerant to capacitive loads, it can be isolated by a small serial resistor, as is shown in Fig. 5.22B. A small capacitive feedback (C f ) to the inverting input of the amplifier and a 10 resistor may allow driving loads as large as 0.5 µF. However, in any particular case, it is recommended to find the best values for the resistor and the capacitor experimentally. 5.4 Analog-to-Digital Converters 5.4.1 Basic Concepts The analog-to-digital (A/D) converters range from discrete circuits, to monolithic ICs (integrated circuits), to high-performance hybrid circuits, modules, and even boxes. Also, the converters are available as standard cells for custom and semicustom application-specific integrated circuits (ASICs). The A/D converters transform analog data—usually voltage—into an equivalent digital form, compatible with digital data processing devices. Key characteristics of A/D converters include absolute and relative accuracy, linearity, no missing codes, resolution, conversion speed, stability, and price. Quite often, when price is of a major concern, discrete-component or monolithic IC versions are the most efficient. The most popular A/D converters are based on a successive-approximation technique because of an inherently good compromise between speed and accuracy. However, other popular techniques are used in a large variety of applications, especially when a high conversion speed is not required. These include dual-ramp, quad-slope, and voltage-to-frequency (V/F) converters. The art of an A/D conversion is well developed. Here, we briefly review some popular architectures of the converters; however, for detailed descriptions the reader should refer to specialized texts, such as Ref. [4]. The best known digital code is binary (base 2). Binary codes are most familiar in representing integers; that is, in a natural binary integer code having n bits, the LSB (least significant bit) has a weight of 2 (i.e., 1), the next bit has a weight of 2 1 (i.e., 2), and so on up to MSB (most significant bit), which has a weight of 2 n−1 (i.e., 2 n /2). The value of a binary number is obtained by adding up the weights of all nonzero bits. When the weighted bits are added up, they form a unique number having any value from0to2 n − 1. Each additional trailing zero bit, if present, essentially doubles the size of the number. When converting signals from analog sensors, because the full scale is independent of the number of bits of resolution, a more useful coding is fractional binary [4], which is always normalized to full scale. Integer binary can be interpreted as fractional binary if all integer values are divided by 2 n . For example, the MSB has a weight of 1/2 (i.e., 2 n−1 /2 n = 2 −1 ), the next bit has a weight of 1/4 (i.e., 2 −2 ), and so forth down to the LSB, which has a weight of 1/2 n (i.e., 2 −n ). When the weighted bits are added up, they form a number with any of 2 n values, from 0 to (1 − 2 −n ) of full scale.
176 5 Interface Electronic Circuits Table 5.1. Integer and Fractional Binary Codes Decimal Fraction Binary MSB Bit2 Bit3 Bit4 Binary Decimal Fraction x1/2 x1/4 x1/6 x1/16 Integer Integer 0 0.0000 0 0 0 0 0000 0 1/16 (LSB) 0.0001 0 0 0 1 0001 1 2/16 = 1/8 0.0010 0 0 1 0 0010 2 3/16 = 1/8 + 1/16 0.0011 0 0 1 1 0011 3 4/16 = 1/4 0.0100 0 1 0 0 0100 4 5/16 = 1/4 + 1/16 0.0101 0 1 0 1 0101 5 6/16 = 1/4 + 1/8 0.0110 0 1 1 0 0110 6 7/16 = 1/4 + 1/8 + 1/16 0.0111 0 1 1 1 0111 7 8/16 = 1/2 (MSB) 0.1000 1 0 0 0 1000 8 9/16 = 1/2 + 1/16 0.1001 1 0 0 1 1001 9 10/16 = 1/2 + 1/8 0.1010 1 0 1 0 1010 10 11/16 = 1/2 + 1/8 + 1/16 0.1011 1 0 1 1 1011 11 12/16 = 1/2 + 1/4 0.1100 1 1 0 0 1100 12 13/16 = 1/2 + 1/4 + 1/16 0.1101 1 1 0 1 1101 13 14/16 = 1/2 + 1/4 + 1/8 0.1110 1 1 1 0 1110 14 15/16 = 1/2 + 1/4 + 1/8 + 1/16 0.1111 1 1 1 1 1111 15 Source: Adapted from Ref. [4]. Additional bits simply provide more fine structure without affecting the full-scale range. To illustrate these relationships, Table 5.1 lists 16 permutations of 5-bit’s worth of 1’s and 0’s, with their binary weights, and the equivalent numbers expressed as both decimal and binary integers and fractions. When all bits are “1” in natural binary, the fractional number value is 1 − 2 −n , or normalized full-scale less 1 LSB (1 − 1/16 = 15/16 in the example). Strictly speaking, the number that is represented, written with an “integer point,” is 0.1111 (= 1 − 0.0001). However, it is almost universal practice to write the code simply as the integer 1111 (i.e., “15”) with the fractional nature of the corresponding number understood: “1111” → 1111/(1111 + 1), or 15/16. For convenience, Table 5.2 lists bit weights in binary for numbers having up to 20 bits. However, the practical range for the vast majority of sensors rarely exceeds 16 bits. The weight assigned to the LSB is the resolution of numbers having n bits. The dB column represents the logarithm (base 10) of the ratio of the LSB value to unity [full scale (FS)], multiplied by 20. Each successive power of 2 represents a change of 6.02 dB [i.e., 20 log 10 (2)] or “6 dB/octave.” 5.4.2 V/F Converters The voltage-to-frequency (V/F) converters can provide a high-resolution conversion, and this is useful for the sensor’s special features as a long-term integration (from seconds to years), a digital-to-frequency conversion (together with a D/A converter), a frequency modulation, a voltage isolation, and an arbitrary frequency division and
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HANDBOOK OF MODERN SENSORS PHYSICS,
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HANDBOOK OF MODERN SENSORS PHYSICS,
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To the memory of my father
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Preface Seven years have passed sin
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Contents Preface ..................
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Contents XI 4.5 Lenses ............
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Contents XIII 7.7.1 Micropower Impu
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Contents XV 15 Radiation Detectors
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Contents XVII Table A.9 Physical Pr
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1 Data Acquisition “It’s as lar
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1.1 Sensors, Signals, and Systems 3
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1.1 Sensors, Signals, and Systems 5
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1.2 Sensor Classification 7 oscillo
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1.3 Units of Measurements 9 Table 1
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Table 1.7. SI Basic Units Reference
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2 Sensor Characteristics “O, what
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2.2 Span (Full-Scale Input) 15 Fig.
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2.4 Accuracy 17 2.4 Accuracy Avery
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2.6 Calibration Error 19 To compute
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2.8 Nonlinearity 21 Fig. 2.4. Trans
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2.12 Resolution 23 (A) (B) Fig. 2.7
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2.16 Dynamic Characteristics 25 2.1
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2.16 Dynamic Characteristics 27 Sub
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2.17 Environmental Factors 29 2.17
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2.18 Reliability 31 guide. For inst
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2.20 Uncertainty 33 • Thermal sho
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Table 2.2. Uncertainty Budget for T
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3 Physical Principles of Sensing
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3.1 Electric Charges, Fields, and P
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3.2 Capacitance 45 The capacitor ma
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3.2 Capacitance 47 (A) (B) Fig. 3.6
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3.2 Capacitance 49 h 0 (A) (B) Fig.
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3.3 Magnetism 51 N S S N (A) (B) Fi
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3.3 Magnetism 53 electric charge ca
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3.3 Magnetism 55 3.3.3 Toroid Anoth
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3.4 Induction 57 • Changing the o
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3.5 Resistance 59 Fig. 3.16. Voltag
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3.5 Resistance 61 For pure resistan
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3.5 Resistance 63 resistor) and the
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3.5 Resistance 65 Fig. 3.19. Strain
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3.6 Piezoelectric Effect 67 (A) (B)
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3.6 Piezoelectric Effect 69 Another
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3.6 Piezoelectric Effect 71 Another
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3.6 Piezoelectric Effect 73 absorpt
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3.6 Piezoelectric Effect 75 that en
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3.7 Pyroelectric Effect 77 circuit
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3.7 Pyroelectric Effect 79 through
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3.7 Pyroelectric Effect 81 Fig. 3.2
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3.8 Hall Effect 83 Fig. 3.30. Hall
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Table 3.2. Typical Characteristics
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3.9 Seebeck and Peltier Effects 87
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3.10 Sound Waves 93 If we consider
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3.11 Temperature and Thermal Proper
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3.11 Temperature and Thermal Proper
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3.12 Heat Transfer 99 to about 35
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3.12 Heat Transfer 101 (A) (B) Fig.
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3.12 Heat Transfer 103 Fig. 3.41. S
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3.12 Heat Transfer 105 Fig. 3.42. S
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3.12 Heat Transfer 107 Fig. 3.44. W
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3.12 Heat Transfer 109 (A) (B) Fig.
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3.13 Light 111 [38] whose emissivit
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3.14 Dynamic Models of Sensor Eleme
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References 119 specified and three
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References 121 34. Thomson, W. On t
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124 4 Optical Components of Sensors
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Page 168 and 169: 150 Optical Components of Sensors 1
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Page 172 and 173: 5.1 Input Characteristics of Interf
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Page 178 and 179: 5.2 Amplifiers 159 Fig. 5.7. Voltag
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Page 196 and 197: Table 5.2. Binary Bit Weights and R
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References 225 nickel-metal hydrate
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6 Occupancy and Motion Detectors Se
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6.2 Microwave Motion Detectors 229
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6.2 Microwave Motion Detectors 231
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6.3 Capacitive Occupancy Detectors
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6.3 Capacitive Occupancy Detectors
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6.4 Triboelectric Detectors 237 6.4
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6.5 Optoelectronic Motion Detectors
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and the facet pitch is 6.5 Optoelec
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References 251 Fig. 6.17. Calculate
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7 Position, Displacement, and Level
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7.1 Potentiometric Sensors 255 (A)
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7.2 Gravitational Sensors 257 (A) (
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7.3 Capacitive Sensors 259 (A) (B)
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7.3 Capacitive Sensors 261 Fig. 7.7
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7.4 Inductive and Magnetic Sensors
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7.5 Optical Sensors 275 Therefore,
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7.5 Optical Sensors 277 (A) (B) (C)
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7.5 Optical Sensors 279 (A) (B) Fig
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7.5 Optical Sensors 281 Fig. 7.32.
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7.5 Optical Sensors 283 (A) (B) (C)
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7.5 Optical Sensors 285 is proporti
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7.6 Ultrasonic Sensors 287 (A) (B)
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7.7 Radar Sensors 289 (A) (B) Fig.
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7.7 Radar Sensors 291 (A) (B) Fig.
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7.8 Thickness and Level Sensors 293
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References 299 8. Dakin, J. P., Wad
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8 Velocity and Acceleration Acceler
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8.1 Accelerometer Characteristics 3
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8.2 Capacitive Accelerometers 305 a
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8.3 Piezoresistive Accelerometers 3
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8.5 Thermal Accelerometers 309 Fig.
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8.5 Thermal Accelerometers 311 forc
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8.6 Gyroscopes 313 8.6 Gyroscopes N
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8.6 Gyroscopes 315 (A) (B) Fig. 8.1
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8.6 Gyroscopes 317 Products Company
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8.7 Piezoelectric Cables 319 (A) (B
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References 321 (A) (B) Fig. 8.16.Ap
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9 Force, Strain, and Tactile Sensor
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9.1 Strain Gauges 325 (A) (B) Fig.
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9.2 Tactile Sensors 327 9.2 Tactile
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9.2 Tactile Sensors 329 (A) (B) Fig
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9.2 Tactile Sensors 331 Fig. 9.7. P
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9.2 Tactile Sensors 333 Fig. 9.9. T
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9.3 Piezoelectric Force Sensors 335
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References 337 14. Karrer, E. and L
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10 Pressure Sensors “To learn som
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10.3 Mercury Pressure Sensor 341 1
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10.4 Bellows, Membranes, and Thin P
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10.5 Piezoresistive Sensors 345 Fig
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10.5 Piezoresistive Sensors 347 bri
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10.6 Capacitive Sensors 349 (A) (B)
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10.7 VRP Sensors 351 (A) (B) Fig. 1
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10.8 Optoelectronic Sensors 353 Fig
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10.9 Vacuum Sensors 355 (A) (B) Fig
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References 357 (A) (B) (C) Fig. 10.
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11 Flow Sensors It’s a simple tas
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11.2 Pressure Gradient Technique 36
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11.3 Thermal Transport Sensors 363
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11.3 Thermal Transport Sensors 365
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11.4 Ultrasonic Sensors 367 A senso
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11.4 Ultrasonic Sensors 369 Fig. 11
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induced in the liquid. The magnitud
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11.6 Microflow Sensors 373 (A) (B)
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11.7 Breeze Sensor 375 (A) (B) Fig.
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11.9 Drag Force Flow Sensors 377 Wi
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References 379 11. Philip-Chandy, R
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12 Acoustic Sensors “Your ears wi
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12.3 Fiber-Optic Microphone 383 (A)
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12.4 Piezoelectric Microphones 385
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12.5 Electret Microphones 387 Fig.
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12.6 Solid-State Acoustic Detectors
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References 391 References 1. Hohm,
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13 Humidity and Moisture Sensors 13
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13.1 Concept of Humidity 395 Table
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13.2 Capacitive Sensors 397 Fig. 13
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13.3 Electrical Conductivity Sensor
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13.4 Thermal Conductivity Sensor 40
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13.6 Oscillating Hygrometer 403 chi
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References 405 9. Jachowicz, R. S.
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14 Light Detectors “There is noth
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14.1 Introduction 409 Table 14.1. B
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14.2 Photodiodes 411 Maximum revers
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14.2 Photodiodes 413 when i = 0), w
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14.2 Photodiodes 415 (A) (B) (C) Fi
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14.2 Photodiodes 417 Fig. 14.9. Res
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14.3 Phototransistor 419 Fig. 14.12
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14.4 Photoresistors 421 (A) (B) Fig
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14.5 Cooled Detectors 423 (A) (B) F
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14.6 Thermal Detectors 425 Table 14
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14.6 Thermal Detectors 427 Fig. 14.
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Table 14.3. Typical Specifications
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14.6 Thermal Detectors 431 A dual e
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14.6 Thermal Detectors 433 Fig. 14.
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14.6 Thermal Detectors 435 (A) (B)
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14.6 Thermal Detectors 437 Section
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14.7 Gas Flame Detectors 439 P = V
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References 441 housing assures wide
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15 Radiation Detectors Figure 3.41
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15.1 Scintillating Detectors 445 Fi
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15.2 Ionization Detectors 447 emitt
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15.2 Ionization Detectors 449 Fig.
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15.2 Ionization Detectors 451 parti
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15.2 Ionization Detectors 453 There
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References 455 the pure intrinsic t
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16 Temperature Sensors When a scien
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16 Temperature Sensors 459 from whi
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16.1 Thermoresistive Sensors 461 2.
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16.1 Thermoresistive Sensors 463 Ta
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16.1 Thermoresistive Sensors 465 Fi
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16.1 Thermoresistive Sensors 467 pr
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16.1 Thermoresistive Sensors 475 (m
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16.2 Thermoelectric Contact Sensors
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16.3 Semiconductor P-N Junction Sen
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16.4 Optical Temperature Sensors 49
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16.4 Optical Temperature Sensors 49
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16.5 Acoustic Temperature Sensor 49
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References 497 plate—the so-calle
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17 Chemical Sensors 1 Chemical sens
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17.3 Classification of Chemical-Sen
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17.4 Direct Sensors 503 17.4 Direct
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17.4 Direct Sensors 505 voltage e.
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17.4 Direct Sensors 507 This reacti
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17.4 Direct Sensors 509 (A) (B) Fig
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17.4 Direct Sensors 511 µm thick a
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17.5 Complex Sensors 513 Fig. 17.11
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17.5 Complex Sensors 515 Fig. 17.12
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17.5 Complex Sensors 517 frequency
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Table 17.1. SAW Chemical Sensors 17
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17.6 Chemical Sensors Versus Instru
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References 531 13. LaCourse, W.R. P
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18 Sensor Materials and Technologie
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18.1 Materials 535 etching is a key
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18.1 Materials 537 Fig. 18.3. The a
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18.1 Materials 539 The following is
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18.1 Materials 541 should be consid
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18.2 Surface Processing 543 sensor
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18.2 Surface Processing 545 On a co
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18.3 Nano-Technology 547 6000-Å la
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18.3 Nano-Technology 549 exposed to
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18.3 Nano-Technology 551 Fig. 18.10
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18.3 Nano-Technology 553 (A) (B) Fi
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References 555 Fig. 18.17. Bonding
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Appendix Table A.1. Chemical Symbol
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Table A.4. SI Conversion Multiples
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Table A.4 Continued Light cd/in. 2
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Table A.4 Continued Cup 2.36588 ×
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Appendix 565 Table A.7. Some Materi
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Appendix 567 Table A.11. Thermoelec
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Table A.14. Mechanical Properties o
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Appendix 571 Table A.18. Typical Em
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Table A.20. Characteristics of C-Zn
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Table A.23 Continued Manufacturer P
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Table A.25. Properties of Glasses S
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Index α-particles, 443 A/D, 175, 1
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Index 581 Coulomb’s law, 40 cross
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Index 583 H 2 O, 108 Hall, 82 Hall
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Index 585 occupancy sensors, 227 od
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Index 587 SAW, 75, 388, 404, 496, 5
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Index 589 velocity sensor, 302 vert
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