handbook of modern sensors

More documents

Recommendations

Info

3.6 Piezoelectric Effect 75 that enable new sensor-on-silicon applications, and cylinders with wall thicknesses in excess of 1200 µm for sonar. Piezo cable is also produced using a copolymer. Unlike piezo ceramic transducers, piezo film transducers offer wide dynamic range and are also broadband. These wide-band characteristics (near dc to 2 GHz) and low Q are partly attributable to the polymers’ softness. As audio transmitters, a curved piezo film element, clamped at each end, vibrates in the length (d 31 ) mode. The d 31 configuration is also used for air ultrasound ranging applications up to frequencies of about 50 kHz. When used as a high ultrasonic transmitter (generally >500 kHz), piezo film is normally operated in the thickness (d 33 ) mode. Maximum transmission occurs at thickness resonance. The basic half-wavelength resonance of 28-µm piezo film is about 40 MHz: Resonance values depend on film thickness. They range from low megahertz for thick films (1000 ) to >100 MHz for very thin films (µm). Piezo film does have some limitations for certain applications. It makes a relatively weak electromechanical transmitter when compared to ceramics, particularly at resonance and in low-frequency applications. The copolymer film has maximum operating/storage temperatures as high as 135 ◦ C, whereas PVDF is not recommended for use or storage above 100 ◦ C. Also, if the electrodes on the film are exposed, the sensor can be sensitive to electromagnetic radiation. Good shielding techniques are available for high-electromagnetic interferences/radio-frequency interferences (EMI/RFI) environments. Table 3.1 lists typical properties of piezo film. Table A.8 provides a comparison of the piezoelectric properties of PVDF polymer and other popular piezoelectric ceramic materials. Piezo film has low density and excellent sensitivity and is mechanically tough. The compliance of piezo film is 10 times greater than the compliance of ceramics. When extruded into thin film, piezoelectric polymers can be directly attached to a structure without disturbing its mechanical motion. Piezo film is well suited to strain-sensing applications requiring a very wide bandwidth and high sensitivity. As an actuator, the polymer’s low acoustic impedance permits the efficient transfer of a broadband of energy into air and other gases. The piezoelectric effect is the prime means of converting mechanical deformation into electrical signal and vice versa in the miniature semiconductor sensors. The effect, however, can be used only for converting the changing stimuli and cannot be used for conversion of steady-state or very slow-changing signals. Because silicon does not possess piezoelectric properties, such properties can be added on by depositing crystalline layers of the piezoelectric materials. The three most popular materials are zinc oxide (ZnO), aluminum nitride (AlN), and the socalled solid-solution system of lead–zirconite–titanium oxides Pb(Zr,Ti)O 3 known as PZT ceramic, basically the same material used for fabrication of discrete piezoelectric sensors as described earlier. Zinc oxide in addition to the piezoelectric properties also is pyroelectric. It was the first and most popular material for development of ultrasonic acoustic sensors, surface-acoustic-wave (SAW) devices, microbalances, and so forth. One of its advantages is the ease of chemical etching. The zinc oxide thin films are usually deposited on silicon by employing sputtering technology. Aluminum nitride is an excellent piezoelectric material because of its high acoustic velocity and its endurance in humidity and high temperature. Its piezoelectric coeffi-
76 3 Physical Principles of Sensing cient is somewhat lower than in ZnO but higher than in other thin-film piezoelectric materials, excluding ceramics. The high acoustic velocity makes it an attractive choice in the gigahertz frequency range. Usually, the AlN thin films are fabricated by using the chemical vapor deposition (CVD) or reactive molecular beam epitaxy (MBE) technologies. However, the drawback of using these deposition methods is the need for a high heating temperature (up to 1300 ◦ C) of the substrate. The PZTthin films possesses a larger piezoelectric coefficient than ZnO orAlN and also a high pyroelectric coefficient, which makes it a good candidate for fabrication of the thermal radiation detectors. A great variety of deposition techniques is available for the PZT, among which are electron-beam evaporation [13], radio-frequency (RF) sputtering [14], ion-beam deposition [15], epitaxial growth by RF sputtering [16], magnetron sputtering [17], laser ablation [18], and sol-gel [19]. 3.7 Pyroelectric Effect Pyroelectric materials are crystalline substances capable of generating an electrical charge in response to heat flow. The pyroelectric effect is very closely related to the piezoelectric effect. Before going further, we recommend that the reader be familiar with Section 3.6. Like piezoelectrics, the pyroelectric materials are used in the form of thin slices or films with electrodes deposited on the opposite sides to collect the thermally induced charges (Fig. 3.26). The pyroelectric sensor is essentially a capacitor which can be electrically charged by an influx of heat. The detector does not require any external electrical bias (excitation signal). It needs only an appropriate electronic interface Fig. 3.26. The pyroelectric sensor has two electrodes on the opposite sides of the crystal. Thermal radiation is applied along axis 3 from the bottom and escapes upward.
Page 2 and 3:
HANDBOOK OF MODERN SENSORS PHYSICS,
Page 4 and 5:
HANDBOOK OF MODERN SENSORS PHYSICS,
Page 6 and 7:
To the memory of my father
Page 8 and 9:
Preface Seven years have passed sin
Page 10 and 11:
Contents Preface ..................
Page 12 and 13:
Contents XI 4.5 Lenses ............
Page 14 and 15:
Contents XIII 7.7.1 Micropower Impu
Page 16 and 17:
Contents XV 15 Radiation Detectors
Page 18 and 19:
Contents XVII Table A.9 Physical Pr
Page 20 and 21:
1 Data Acquisition “It’s as lar
Page 22 and 23:
1.1 Sensors, Signals, and Systems 3
Page 24 and 25:
1.1 Sensors, Signals, and Systems 5
Page 26 and 27:
1.2 Sensor Classification 7 oscillo
Page 28 and 29:
1.3 Units of Measurements 9 Table 1
Page 30 and 31:
Table 1.7. SI Basic Units Reference
Page 32 and 33:
2 Sensor Characteristics “O, what
Page 34 and 35:
2.2 Span (Full-Scale Input) 15 Fig.
Page 36 and 37:
2.4 Accuracy 17 2.4 Accuracy Avery
Page 38 and 39:
2.6 Calibration Error 19 To compute
Page 40 and 41:
2.8 Nonlinearity 21 Fig. 2.4. Trans
Page 42 and 43:
2.12 Resolution 23 (A) (B) Fig. 2.7
Page 44 and 45: 2.16 Dynamic Characteristics 25 2.1
Page 46 and 47: 2.16 Dynamic Characteristics 27 Sub
Page 48 and 49: 2.17 Environmental Factors 29 2.17
Page 50 and 51: 2.18 Reliability 31 guide. For inst
Page 52 and 53: 2.20 Uncertainty 33 • Thermal sho
Page 54 and 55: Table 2.2. Uncertainty Budget for T
Page 56 and 57: 3 Physical Principles of Sensing
Page 58 and 59: 3.1 Electric Charges, Fields, and P
Page 64 and 65: 3.2 Capacitance 45 The capacitor ma
Page 66 and 67: 3.2 Capacitance 47 (A) (B) Fig. 3.6
Page 68 and 69: 3.2 Capacitance 49 h 0 (A) (B) Fig.
Page 70 and 71: 3.3 Magnetism 51 N S S N (A) (B) Fi
Page 72 and 73: 3.3 Magnetism 53 electric charge ca
Page 74 and 75: 3.3 Magnetism 55 3.3.3 Toroid Anoth
Page 76 and 77: 3.4 Induction 57 • Changing the o
Page 78 and 79: 3.5 Resistance 59 Fig. 3.16. Voltag
Page 80 and 81: 3.5 Resistance 61 For pure resistan
Page 82 and 83: 3.5 Resistance 63 resistor) and the
Page 84 and 85: 3.5 Resistance 65 Fig. 3.19. Strain
Page 86 and 87: 3.6 Piezoelectric Effect 67 (A) (B)
Page 88 and 89: 3.6 Piezoelectric Effect 69 Another
Page 90 and 91: 3.6 Piezoelectric Effect 71 Another
Page 92 and 93: 3.6 Piezoelectric Effect 73 absorpt
Page 96 and 97: 3.7 Pyroelectric Effect 77 circuit
Page 98 and 99: 3.7 Pyroelectric Effect 79 through
Page 100 and 101: 3.7 Pyroelectric Effect 81 Fig. 3.2
Page 102 and 103: 3.8 Hall Effect 83 Fig. 3.30. Hall
Page 104 and 105: Table 3.2. Typical Characteristics
Page 106 and 107: 3.9 Seebeck and Peltier Effects 87
Page 112 and 113: 3.10 Sound Waves 93 If we consider
Page 114 and 115: 3.11 Temperature and Thermal Proper
Page 116 and 117: 3.11 Temperature and Thermal Proper
Page 118 and 119: 3.12 Heat Transfer 99 to about 35
Page 120 and 121: 3.12 Heat Transfer 101 (A) (B) Fig.
Page 122 and 123: 3.12 Heat Transfer 103 Fig. 3.41. S
Page 124 and 125: 3.12 Heat Transfer 105 Fig. 3.42. S
Page 126 and 127: 3.12 Heat Transfer 107 Fig. 3.44. W
Page 128 and 129: 3.12 Heat Transfer 109 (A) (B) Fig.
Page 130 and 131: 3.13 Light 111 [38] whose emissivit
Page 132 and 133: 3.14 Dynamic Models of Sensor Eleme
Page 138 and 139: References 119 specified and three
Page 140 and 141: References 121 34. Thomson, W. On t
Page 142 and 143: 124 4 Optical Components of Sensors
Page 144 and 145:
126 4 Optical Components of Sensors
Page 146 and 147:
Page 148 and 149:
Page 150 and 151:
Page 152 and 153:
Page 154 and 155:
Page 156 and 157:
Page 158 and 159:
Page 160 and 161:
Page 162 and 163:
Page 164 and 165:
Page 166 and 167:
Page 168 and 169:
150 Optical Components of Sensors 1
Page 170 and 171:
5 Interface Electronic Circuits 5.1
Page 172 and 173:
5.1 Input Characteristics of Interf
Page 174 and 175:
5.1 Input Characteristics of Interf
Page 176 and 177:
5.2 Amplifiers 157 (A) (B) Fig. 5.5
Page 178 and 179:
5.2 Amplifiers 159 Fig. 5.7. Voltag
Page 180 and 181:
5.2 Amplifiers 161 (A) (B) Fig. 5.9
Page 182 and 183:
5.2 Amplifiers 163 Fig. 5.11. An eq
Page 184 and 185:
5.3 Excitation Circuits 165 5.3.1 C
Page 186 and 187:
5.3 Excitation Circuits 167 (A) (B)
Page 188 and 189:
5.3 Excitation Circuits 169 Fig. 5.
Page 190 and 191:
5.3 Excitation Circuits 171 atures.
Page 192 and 193:
5.3 Excitation Circuits 173 (A) (B)
Page 194 and 195:
5.4 Analog-to-Digital Converters 17
Page 196 and 197:
Table 5.2. Binary Bit Weights and R
Page 198 and 199:
Page 200 and 201:
Page 202 and 203:
Page 204 and 205:
Page 206 and 207:
5.5 Direct Digitization and Process
Page 208 and 209:
5.5 Direct Digitization and Process
Page 210 and 211:
5.6 Ratiometric Circuits 191 (A) (B
Page 212 and 213:
5.7 Bridge Circuits 193 determine t
Page 214 and 215:
5.7 Bridge Circuits 195 Fig. 5.38.
Page 216 and 217:
5.7 Bridge Circuits 197 Fig. 5.39.
Page 218 and 219:
It can be solved for the temperatur
Page 220 and 221:
5.8 Data Transmission 201 (A) (B) (
Page 222 and 223:
5.8 Data Transmission 203 wire meth
Page 224 and 225:
5.9 Noise in Sensors and Circuits 2
Page 226 and 227:
Page 228 and 229:
Page 230 and 231:
Page 232 and 233:
Page 234 and 235:
Page 236 and 237:
Page 238 and 239:
Page 240 and 241:
Page 242 and 243:
5.10 Batteries for Low Power Sensor
Page 244 and 245:
References 225 nickel-metal hydrate
Page 246 and 247:
6 Occupancy and Motion Detectors Se
Page 248 and 249:
6.2 Microwave Motion Detectors 229
Page 250 and 251:
6.2 Microwave Motion Detectors 231
Page 252 and 253:
6.3 Capacitive Occupancy Detectors
Page 254 and 255:
6.3 Capacitive Occupancy Detectors
Page 256 and 257:
6.4 Triboelectric Detectors 237 6.4
Page 258 and 259:
6.5 Optoelectronic Motion Detectors
Page 260 and 261:
Page 262 and 263:
and the facet pitch is 6.5 Optoelec
Page 264 and 265:
Page 266 and 267:
Page 268 and 269:
Page 270 and 271:
References 251 Fig. 6.17. Calculate
Page 272 and 273:
7 Position, Displacement, and Level
Page 274 and 275:
7.1 Potentiometric Sensors 255 (A)
Page 276 and 277:
7.2 Gravitational Sensors 257 (A) (
Page 278 and 279:
7.3 Capacitive Sensors 259 (A) (B)
Page 280 and 281:
7.3 Capacitive Sensors 261 Fig. 7.7
Page 282 and 283:
7.4 Inductive and Magnetic Sensors
Page 284 and 285:
Page 286 and 287:
Page 288 and 289:
Page 290 and 291:
Page 292 and 293:
Page 294 and 295:
7.5 Optical Sensors 275 Therefore,
Page 296 and 297:
7.5 Optical Sensors 277 (A) (B) (C)
Page 298 and 299:
7.5 Optical Sensors 279 (A) (B) Fig
Page 300 and 301:
7.5 Optical Sensors 281 Fig. 7.32.
Page 302 and 303:
7.5 Optical Sensors 283 (A) (B) (C)
Page 304 and 305:
7.5 Optical Sensors 285 is proporti
Page 306 and 307:
7.6 Ultrasonic Sensors 287 (A) (B)
Page 308 and 309:
7.7 Radar Sensors 289 (A) (B) Fig.
Page 310 and 311:
7.7 Radar Sensors 291 (A) (B) Fig.
Page 312 and 313:
7.8 Thickness and Level Sensors 293
Page 314 and 315:
Page 316 and 317:
Page 318 and 319:
References 299 8. Dakin, J. P., Wad
Page 320 and 321:
8 Velocity and Acceleration Acceler
Page 322 and 323:
8.1 Accelerometer Characteristics 3
Page 324 and 325:
8.2 Capacitive Accelerometers 305 a
Page 326 and 327:
8.3 Piezoresistive Accelerometers 3
Page 328 and 329:
8.5 Thermal Accelerometers 309 Fig.
Page 330 and 331:
8.5 Thermal Accelerometers 311 forc
Page 332 and 333:
8.6 Gyroscopes 313 8.6 Gyroscopes N
Page 334 and 335:
8.6 Gyroscopes 315 (A) (B) Fig. 8.1
Page 336 and 337:
8.6 Gyroscopes 317 Products Company
Page 338 and 339:
8.7 Piezoelectric Cables 319 (A) (B
Page 340 and 341:
References 321 (A) (B) Fig. 8.16.Ap
Page 342 and 343:
9 Force, Strain, and Tactile Sensor
Page 344 and 345:
9.1 Strain Gauges 325 (A) (B) Fig.
Page 346 and 347:
9.2 Tactile Sensors 327 9.2 Tactile
Page 348 and 349:
9.2 Tactile Sensors 329 (A) (B) Fig
Page 350 and 351:
9.2 Tactile Sensors 331 Fig. 9.7. P
Page 352 and 353:
9.2 Tactile Sensors 333 Fig. 9.9. T
Page 354 and 355:
9.3 Piezoelectric Force Sensors 335
Page 356 and 357:
References 337 14. Karrer, E. and L
Page 358 and 359:
10 Pressure Sensors “To learn som
Page 360 and 361:
10.3 Mercury Pressure Sensor 341 1
Page 362 and 363:
10.4 Bellows, Membranes, and Thin P
Page 364 and 365:
10.5 Piezoresistive Sensors 345 Fig
Page 366 and 367:
10.5 Piezoresistive Sensors 347 bri
Page 368 and 369:
10.6 Capacitive Sensors 349 (A) (B)
Page 370 and 371:
10.7 VRP Sensors 351 (A) (B) Fig. 1
Page 372 and 373:
10.8 Optoelectronic Sensors 353 Fig
Page 374 and 375:
10.9 Vacuum Sensors 355 (A) (B) Fig
Page 376 and 377:
References 357 (A) (B) (C) Fig. 10.
Page 378 and 379:
11 Flow Sensors It’s a simple tas
Page 380 and 381:
11.2 Pressure Gradient Technique 36
Page 382 and 383:
11.3 Thermal Transport Sensors 363
Page 384 and 385:
11.3 Thermal Transport Sensors 365
Page 386 and 387:
11.4 Ultrasonic Sensors 367 A senso
Page 388 and 389:
11.4 Ultrasonic Sensors 369 Fig. 11
Page 390 and 391:
induced in the liquid. The magnitud
Page 392 and 393:
11.6 Microflow Sensors 373 (A) (B)
Page 394 and 395:
11.7 Breeze Sensor 375 (A) (B) Fig.
Page 396 and 397:
11.9 Drag Force Flow Sensors 377 Wi
Page 398 and 399:
References 379 11. Philip-Chandy, R
Page 400 and 401:
12 Acoustic Sensors “Your ears wi
Page 402 and 403:
12.3 Fiber-Optic Microphone 383 (A)
Page 404 and 405:
12.4 Piezoelectric Microphones 385
Page 406 and 407:
12.5 Electret Microphones 387 Fig.
Page 408 and 409:
12.6 Solid-State Acoustic Detectors
Page 410 and 411:
References 391 References 1. Hohm,
Page 412 and 413:
13 Humidity and Moisture Sensors 13
Page 414 and 415:
13.1 Concept of Humidity 395 Table
Page 416 and 417:
13.2 Capacitive Sensors 397 Fig. 13
Page 418 and 419:
13.3 Electrical Conductivity Sensor
Page 420 and 421:
13.4 Thermal Conductivity Sensor 40
Page 422 and 423:
13.6 Oscillating Hygrometer 403 chi
Page 424 and 425:
References 405 9. Jachowicz, R. S.
Page 426 and 427:
14 Light Detectors “There is noth
Page 428 and 429:
14.1 Introduction 409 Table 14.1. B
Page 430 and 431:
14.2 Photodiodes 411 Maximum revers
Page 432 and 433:
14.2 Photodiodes 413 when i = 0), w
Page 434 and 435:
14.2 Photodiodes 415 (A) (B) (C) Fi
Page 436 and 437:
14.2 Photodiodes 417 Fig. 14.9. Res
Page 438 and 439:
14.3 Phototransistor 419 Fig. 14.12
Page 440 and 441:
14.4 Photoresistors 421 (A) (B) Fig
Page 442 and 443:
14.5 Cooled Detectors 423 (A) (B) F
Page 444 and 445:
14.6 Thermal Detectors 425 Table 14
Page 446 and 447:
14.6 Thermal Detectors 427 Fig. 14.
Page 448 and 449:
Table 14.3. Typical Specifications
Page 450 and 451:
14.6 Thermal Detectors 431 A dual e
Page 452 and 453:
14.6 Thermal Detectors 433 Fig. 14.
Page 454 and 455:
14.6 Thermal Detectors 435 (A) (B)
Page 456 and 457:
14.6 Thermal Detectors 437 Section
Page 458 and 459:
14.7 Gas Flame Detectors 439 P = V
Page 460 and 461:
References 441 housing assures wide
Page 462 and 463:
15 Radiation Detectors Figure 3.41
Page 464 and 465:
15.1 Scintillating Detectors 445 Fi
Page 466 and 467:
15.2 Ionization Detectors 447 emitt
Page 468 and 469:
15.2 Ionization Detectors 449 Fig.
Page 470 and 471:
15.2 Ionization Detectors 451 parti
Page 472 and 473:
15.2 Ionization Detectors 453 There
Page 474 and 475:
References 455 the pure intrinsic t
Page 476 and 477:
16 Temperature Sensors When a scien
Page 478 and 479:
16 Temperature Sensors 459 from whi
Page 480 and 481:
16.1 Thermoresistive Sensors 461 2.
Page 482 and 483:
16.1 Thermoresistive Sensors 463 Ta
Page 484 and 485:
16.1 Thermoresistive Sensors 465 Fi
Page 486 and 487:
16.1 Thermoresistive Sensors 467 pr
Page 488 and 489:
Page 490 and 491:
Page 492 and 493:
Page 494 and 495:
16.1 Thermoresistive Sensors 475 (m
Page 496 and 497:
Page 498 and 499:
Page 500 and 501:
16.2 Thermoelectric Contact Sensors
Page 502 and 503:
Page 504 and 505:
Page 506 and 507:
Page 508 and 509:
16.3 Semiconductor P-N Junction Sen
Page 510 and 511:
16.4 Optical Temperature Sensors 49
Page 512 and 513:
16.4 Optical Temperature Sensors 49
Page 514 and 515:
16.5 Acoustic Temperature Sensor 49
Page 516 and 517:
References 497 plate—the so-calle
Page 518 and 519:
17 Chemical Sensors 1 Chemical sens
Page 520 and 521:
17.3 Classification of Chemical-Sen
Page 522 and 523:
17.4 Direct Sensors 503 17.4 Direct
Page 524 and 525:
17.4 Direct Sensors 505 voltage e.
Page 526 and 527:
17.4 Direct Sensors 507 This reacti
Page 528 and 529:
17.4 Direct Sensors 509 (A) (B) Fig
Page 530 and 531:
17.4 Direct Sensors 511 µm thick a
Page 532 and 533:
17.5 Complex Sensors 513 Fig. 17.11
Page 534 and 535:
17.5 Complex Sensors 515 Fig. 17.12
Page 536 and 537:
17.5 Complex Sensors 517 frequency
Page 538 and 539:
Table 17.1. SAW Chemical Sensors 17
Page 540 and 541:
17.6 Chemical Sensors Versus Instru
Page 542 and 543:
Page 544 and 545:
Page 546 and 547:
Page 548 and 549:
Page 550 and 551:
References 531 13. LaCourse, W.R. P
Page 552 and 553:
18 Sensor Materials and Technologie
Page 554 and 555:
18.1 Materials 535 etching is a key
Page 556 and 557:
18.1 Materials 537 Fig. 18.3. The a
Page 558 and 559:
18.1 Materials 539 The following is
Page 560 and 561:
18.1 Materials 541 should be consid
Page 562 and 563:
18.2 Surface Processing 543 sensor
Page 564 and 565:
18.2 Surface Processing 545 On a co
Page 566 and 567:
18.3 Nano-Technology 547 6000-Å la
Page 568 and 569:
18.3 Nano-Technology 549 exposed to
Page 570 and 571:
18.3 Nano-Technology 551 Fig. 18.10
Page 572 and 573:
18.3 Nano-Technology 553 (A) (B) Fi
Page 574 and 575:
References 555 Fig. 18.17. Bonding
Page 576 and 577:
Appendix Table A.1. Chemical Symbol
Page 578 and 579:
Table A.4. SI Conversion Multiples
Page 580 and 581:
Table A.4 Continued Light cd/in. 2
Page 582 and 583:
Table A.4 Continued Cup 2.36588 ×
Page 584 and 585:
Appendix 565 Table A.7. Some Materi
Page 586 and 587:
Appendix 567 Table A.11. Thermoelec
Page 588 and 589:
Table A.14. Mechanical Properties o
Page 590 and 591:
Appendix 571 Table A.18. Typical Em
Page 592 and 593:
Table A.20. Characteristics of C-Zn
Page 594 and 595:
Table A.23 Continued Manufacturer P
Page 596 and 597:
Table A.25. Properties of Glasses S
Page 598 and 599:
Index α-particles, 443 A/D, 175, 1
Page 600 and 601:
Index 581 Coulomb’s law, 40 cross
Page 602 and 603:
Index 583 H 2 O, 108 Hall, 82 Hall
Page 604 and 605:
Index 585 occupancy sensors, 227 od
Page 606 and 607:
Index 587 SAW, 75, 388, 404, 496, 5
Page 608:
Index 589 velocity sensor, 302 vert
show all

handbook of modern sensors

You also want an ePaper? Increase the reach of your titles

Delete template?

Save as template?