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Appendix 567 Table A.11. Thermoelectric Coefficients and Volume Resistivities of Selected Elements Element α(µVK −1 ) ρ (µ m) p-Si 100–1000 10–500 p-Poly-Si 100–500 10–1000 Antimony (Sb) 32 18.5 Iron (Fe) 13.4 0.086 Gold (Au) 0.1 0.023 Copper (Cu) 0 0.0172 Silver (Ag) −0.2 0.016 Aluminum (Al) −3.2 0.028 Ptinum (Pt) −5.9 0.0981 Cobalt (Co) −20.1 0.0557 Nickel (Ni) −20.4 0.0614 Bismuth (Bi) −72.8 1.1 n-Si −100 to −1000 10–500 n-Poly-Si −100 to −500 10–1000 Source: Adapted from Schieferdecker, J., et al. Infrared thermopile sensors with high sensitivity and very low temperature coefficient. Sensors Actuators A 46–47, 422–427, 1995. Table A.11a. Thermocouples for Very Low and Very High Temperatures Materials Useful range Approx. sensitivity ( ◦ C) (µV/ ◦ C) Iron–constantan Down to −272 −32 Copper–constantan Down to −273 −22.9 Cromel–alumel Down to −272 −23.8 Tantalum–tungsten Up to 3000 6.1 Tangsten– Up to 2900 2.8 tangsten(50)molybdenum Tangsten–tangsten(20)rhenium Up to 2900 12.7
Table A.12. Densities (kg/m 3 ) of Some Materials at 1 atm Pressure and 0 ◦ C Best Laboratory Vacuum 10 −17 Silica 1,938–2,657 Hydrogen 0.0899 Graphite recrystallized 1,938 Helium 0.1785 Borosilicate glass (TEMPAX ® ) a 2,200 Methane 0.7168 Asbestos fibers 2,400–3,300 Carbon monoxide 1.250 Silicon 2,333 Air 1.2928 Polycrystalline glass 2,518–2,600 Oxygen 1.4290 Aluminum 2,700 Carbon dioxide 1.9768 Mullite 2,989–3,293 Plastic foams 10–600 Silicon nitride 3,183 Benzene 680–740 Alumina ceramic 3,322–3,875 Alcohol 789.5 Zinc alloys 5,200–7,170 Turpentine 860 Vanadium 6,117 Mineral oil 900–930 Chromium 7,169 Natural rubber 913 Tin and its alloys 7,252–8,000 Polyethylene, low density 913 Stainless steel 8,138 Ice 920 Bronzes 8,885 Polyethylene, high density 950 Copper 8,941 Carbon and graphite fibers 996–2,000 Cobalt and its alloys 9,217 Water 1,000 Nickel and its alloys 9,125 Nylon 6 1,100 Bismuth 9,799 Hydrochloric acid (20%) 1,100 Silver 10,491 Acrylics 1,163–1,190 Lead and its alloys 11,349 Epoxies 1,135–2,187 Palladium 12,013 Coal tar 1,200 Mercury 13,596 Phenolic 1,126–2,989 Molybdenum 13,729 Glycerin 1,260 Tantalum and its alloys 16,968 PVC 1,350 Gold 19,320 Saran fibers 1,700 Tungsten and its alloys 19,653 Sulfuric acid (20%) 1,700 Platinum 21,452 Polyester 1,800 Iridium 22,504 Beryllium and its alloys 1,855–2,076 Osmium 22,697 a TEMPAX ® is a registered trademark of Schott Glasswerke, Mainz, Germany. Table A.13. Mechanical Properties of Some Solid Materials Material Modulus Poisson’s ratio (ν) Density (kg/m 3 ) of elasticity (GPa) Aluminum 71 0.334 2,700 Beryllium copper 112 0.285 8,220 Brass 106 0.312 8,530 Copper 119 0.326 8,900 Glass 46.2 0.125 2,590 Lead 36.5 0.425 11,380 Molybdenum 331 0.307 10,200 Phosphor bronze 11 0.349 8,180 Steel (carbon) 207 0.292 7,800 Steel (stainless) 190 0.305 7,750
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HANDBOOK OF MODERN SENSORS PHYSICS,
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HANDBOOK OF MODERN SENSORS PHYSICS,
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To the memory of my father
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Preface Seven years have passed sin
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Contents Preface ..................
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Contents XI 4.5 Lenses ............
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Contents XIII 7.7.1 Micropower Impu
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Contents XV 15 Radiation Detectors
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Contents XVII Table A.9 Physical Pr
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1 Data Acquisition “It’s as lar
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1.1 Sensors, Signals, and Systems 3
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1.1 Sensors, Signals, and Systems 5
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1.2 Sensor Classification 7 oscillo
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1.3 Units of Measurements 9 Table 1
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Table 1.7. SI Basic Units Reference
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2 Sensor Characteristics “O, what
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2.2 Span (Full-Scale Input) 15 Fig.
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2.4 Accuracy 17 2.4 Accuracy Avery
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2.6 Calibration Error 19 To compute
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2.8 Nonlinearity 21 Fig. 2.4. Trans
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2.12 Resolution 23 (A) (B) Fig. 2.7
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2.16 Dynamic Characteristics 25 2.1
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2.16 Dynamic Characteristics 27 Sub
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2.17 Environmental Factors 29 2.17
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2.18 Reliability 31 guide. For inst
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2.20 Uncertainty 33 • Thermal sho
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Table 2.2. Uncertainty Budget for T
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3 Physical Principles of Sensing
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3.1 Electric Charges, Fields, and P
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3.2 Capacitance 45 The capacitor ma
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3.2 Capacitance 47 (A) (B) Fig. 3.6
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3.2 Capacitance 49 h 0 (A) (B) Fig.
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3.3 Magnetism 51 N S S N (A) (B) Fi
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3.3 Magnetism 53 electric charge ca
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3.3 Magnetism 55 3.3.3 Toroid Anoth
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3.4 Induction 57 • Changing the o
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3.5 Resistance 59 Fig. 3.16. Voltag
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3.5 Resistance 61 For pure resistan
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3.5 Resistance 63 resistor) and the
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3.5 Resistance 65 Fig. 3.19. Strain
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3.6 Piezoelectric Effect 67 (A) (B)
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3.6 Piezoelectric Effect 69 Another
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3.6 Piezoelectric Effect 71 Another
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3.6 Piezoelectric Effect 73 absorpt
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3.6 Piezoelectric Effect 75 that en
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3.7 Pyroelectric Effect 77 circuit
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3.7 Pyroelectric Effect 79 through
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3.7 Pyroelectric Effect 81 Fig. 3.2
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3.8 Hall Effect 83 Fig. 3.30. Hall
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Table 3.2. Typical Characteristics
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3.9 Seebeck and Peltier Effects 87
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3.10 Sound Waves 93 If we consider
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3.11 Temperature and Thermal Proper
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3.11 Temperature and Thermal Proper
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3.12 Heat Transfer 99 to about 35
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3.12 Heat Transfer 101 (A) (B) Fig.
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3.12 Heat Transfer 103 Fig. 3.41. S
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3.12 Heat Transfer 105 Fig. 3.42. S
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3.12 Heat Transfer 107 Fig. 3.44. W
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3.12 Heat Transfer 109 (A) (B) Fig.
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3.13 Light 111 [38] whose emissivit
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3.14 Dynamic Models of Sensor Eleme
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References 119 specified and three
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References 121 34. Thomson, W. On t
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124 4 Optical Components of Sensors
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150 Optical Components of Sensors 1
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5 Interface Electronic Circuits 5.1
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5.1 Input Characteristics of Interf
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5.1 Input Characteristics of Interf
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5.2 Amplifiers 157 (A) (B) Fig. 5.5
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5.2 Amplifiers 159 Fig. 5.7. Voltag
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5.2 Amplifiers 161 (A) (B) Fig. 5.9
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5.2 Amplifiers 163 Fig. 5.11. An eq
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5.3 Excitation Circuits 165 5.3.1 C
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5.3 Excitation Circuits 167 (A) (B)
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5.3 Excitation Circuits 169 Fig. 5.
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5.3 Excitation Circuits 171 atures.
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5.3 Excitation Circuits 173 (A) (B)
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5.4 Analog-to-Digital Converters 17
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Table 5.2. Binary Bit Weights and R
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5.5 Direct Digitization and Process
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5.5 Direct Digitization and Process
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5.6 Ratiometric Circuits 191 (A) (B
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5.7 Bridge Circuits 193 determine t
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5.7 Bridge Circuits 195 Fig. 5.38.
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5.7 Bridge Circuits 197 Fig. 5.39.
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It can be solved for the temperatur
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5.8 Data Transmission 201 (A) (B) (
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5.8 Data Transmission 203 wire meth
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5.9 Noise in Sensors and Circuits 2
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5.10 Batteries for Low Power Sensor
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References 225 nickel-metal hydrate
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6 Occupancy and Motion Detectors Se
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6.2 Microwave Motion Detectors 229
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6.2 Microwave Motion Detectors 231
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6.3 Capacitive Occupancy Detectors
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6.3 Capacitive Occupancy Detectors
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6.4 Triboelectric Detectors 237 6.4
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6.5 Optoelectronic Motion Detectors
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and the facet pitch is 6.5 Optoelec
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References 251 Fig. 6.17. Calculate
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7 Position, Displacement, and Level
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7.1 Potentiometric Sensors 255 (A)
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7.2 Gravitational Sensors 257 (A) (
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7.3 Capacitive Sensors 259 (A) (B)
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7.3 Capacitive Sensors 261 Fig. 7.7
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7.4 Inductive and Magnetic Sensors
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7.5 Optical Sensors 275 Therefore,
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7.5 Optical Sensors 277 (A) (B) (C)
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7.5 Optical Sensors 279 (A) (B) Fig
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7.5 Optical Sensors 281 Fig. 7.32.
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7.5 Optical Sensors 283 (A) (B) (C)
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7.5 Optical Sensors 285 is proporti
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7.6 Ultrasonic Sensors 287 (A) (B)
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7.7 Radar Sensors 289 (A) (B) Fig.
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7.7 Radar Sensors 291 (A) (B) Fig.
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7.8 Thickness and Level Sensors 293
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References 299 8. Dakin, J. P., Wad
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8 Velocity and Acceleration Acceler
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8.1 Accelerometer Characteristics 3
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8.2 Capacitive Accelerometers 305 a
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8.3 Piezoresistive Accelerometers 3
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8.5 Thermal Accelerometers 309 Fig.
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8.5 Thermal Accelerometers 311 forc
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8.6 Gyroscopes 313 8.6 Gyroscopes N
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8.6 Gyroscopes 315 (A) (B) Fig. 8.1
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8.6 Gyroscopes 317 Products Company
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8.7 Piezoelectric Cables 319 (A) (B
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References 321 (A) (B) Fig. 8.16.Ap
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9 Force, Strain, and Tactile Sensor
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9.1 Strain Gauges 325 (A) (B) Fig.
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9.2 Tactile Sensors 327 9.2 Tactile
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9.2 Tactile Sensors 329 (A) (B) Fig
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9.2 Tactile Sensors 331 Fig. 9.7. P
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9.2 Tactile Sensors 333 Fig. 9.9. T
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9.3 Piezoelectric Force Sensors 335
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References 337 14. Karrer, E. and L
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10 Pressure Sensors “To learn som
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10.3 Mercury Pressure Sensor 341 1
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10.4 Bellows, Membranes, and Thin P
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10.5 Piezoresistive Sensors 345 Fig
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10.5 Piezoresistive Sensors 347 bri
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10.6 Capacitive Sensors 349 (A) (B)
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10.7 VRP Sensors 351 (A) (B) Fig. 1
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10.8 Optoelectronic Sensors 353 Fig
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10.9 Vacuum Sensors 355 (A) (B) Fig
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References 357 (A) (B) (C) Fig. 10.
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11 Flow Sensors It’s a simple tas
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11.2 Pressure Gradient Technique 36
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11.3 Thermal Transport Sensors 363
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11.3 Thermal Transport Sensors 365
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11.4 Ultrasonic Sensors 367 A senso
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11.4 Ultrasonic Sensors 369 Fig. 11
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induced in the liquid. The magnitud
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11.6 Microflow Sensors 373 (A) (B)
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11.7 Breeze Sensor 375 (A) (B) Fig.
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11.9 Drag Force Flow Sensors 377 Wi
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References 379 11. Philip-Chandy, R
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12 Acoustic Sensors “Your ears wi
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12.3 Fiber-Optic Microphone 383 (A)
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12.4 Piezoelectric Microphones 385
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12.5 Electret Microphones 387 Fig.
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12.6 Solid-State Acoustic Detectors
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References 391 References 1. Hohm,
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13 Humidity and Moisture Sensors 13
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13.1 Concept of Humidity 395 Table
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13.2 Capacitive Sensors 397 Fig. 13
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13.3 Electrical Conductivity Sensor
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13.4 Thermal Conductivity Sensor 40
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13.6 Oscillating Hygrometer 403 chi
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References 405 9. Jachowicz, R. S.
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14 Light Detectors “There is noth
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14.1 Introduction 409 Table 14.1. B
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14.2 Photodiodes 411 Maximum revers
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14.2 Photodiodes 413 when i = 0), w
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14.2 Photodiodes 415 (A) (B) (C) Fi
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14.2 Photodiodes 417 Fig. 14.9. Res
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14.3 Phototransistor 419 Fig. 14.12
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14.4 Photoresistors 421 (A) (B) Fig
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14.5 Cooled Detectors 423 (A) (B) F
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14.6 Thermal Detectors 425 Table 14
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14.6 Thermal Detectors 427 Fig. 14.
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Table 14.3. Typical Specifications
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14.6 Thermal Detectors 431 A dual e
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14.6 Thermal Detectors 433 Fig. 14.
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14.6 Thermal Detectors 435 (A) (B)
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14.6 Thermal Detectors 437 Section
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14.7 Gas Flame Detectors 439 P = V
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References 441 housing assures wide
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15 Radiation Detectors Figure 3.41
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15.1 Scintillating Detectors 445 Fi
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15.2 Ionization Detectors 447 emitt
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15.2 Ionization Detectors 449 Fig.
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15.2 Ionization Detectors 451 parti
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15.2 Ionization Detectors 453 There
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References 455 the pure intrinsic t
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16 Temperature Sensors When a scien
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16 Temperature Sensors 459 from whi
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16.1 Thermoresistive Sensors 461 2.
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16.1 Thermoresistive Sensors 463 Ta
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16.1 Thermoresistive Sensors 465 Fi
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16.1 Thermoresistive Sensors 467 pr
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16.1 Thermoresistive Sensors 475 (m
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16.2 Thermoelectric Contact Sensors
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16.3 Semiconductor P-N Junction Sen
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16.4 Optical Temperature Sensors 49
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16.4 Optical Temperature Sensors 49
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16.5 Acoustic Temperature Sensor 49
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References 497 plate—the so-calle
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17 Chemical Sensors 1 Chemical sens
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17.3 Classification of Chemical-Sen
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17.4 Direct Sensors 503 17.4 Direct
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17.4 Direct Sensors 505 voltage e.
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17.4 Direct Sensors 507 This reacti
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17.4 Direct Sensors 509 (A) (B) Fig
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17.4 Direct Sensors 511 µm thick a
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17.5 Complex Sensors 513 Fig. 17.11
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17.5 Complex Sensors 515 Fig. 17.12
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Page 538 and 539: Table 17.1. SAW Chemical Sensors 17
Page 540 and 541: 17.6 Chemical Sensors Versus Instru
Page 550 and 551: References 531 13. LaCourse, W.R. P
Page 552 and 553: 18 Sensor Materials and Technologie
Page 554 and 555: 18.1 Materials 535 etching is a key
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Page 558 and 559: 18.1 Materials 539 The following is
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Page 562 and 563: 18.2 Surface Processing 543 sensor
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Page 566 and 567: 18.3 Nano-Technology 547 6000-Å la
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Page 572 and 573: 18.3 Nano-Technology 553 (A) (B) Fi
Page 574 and 575: References 555 Fig. 18.17. Bonding
Page 576 and 577: Appendix Table A.1. Chemical Symbol
Page 578 and 579: Table A.4. SI Conversion Multiples
Page 580 and 581: Table A.4 Continued Light cd/in. 2
Page 582 and 583: Table A.4 Continued Cup 2.36588 ×
Page 584 and 585: Appendix 565 Table A.7. Some Materi
Page 588 and 589: Table A.14. Mechanical Properties o
Page 590 and 591: Appendix 571 Table A.18. Typical Em
Page 592 and 593: Table A.20. Characteristics of C-Zn
Page 594 and 595: Table A.23 Continued Manufacturer P
Page 596 and 597: Table A.25. Properties of Glasses S
Page 598 and 599: Index α-particles, 443 A/D, 175, 1
Page 600 and 601: Index 581 Coulomb’s law, 40 cross
Page 602 and 603: Index 583 H 2 O, 108 Hall, 82 Hall
Page 604 and 605: Index 585 occupancy sensors, 227 od
Page 606 and 607: Index 587 SAW, 75, 388, 404, 496, 5
Page 608: Index 589 velocity sensor, 302 vert
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