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13.1 Concept of Humidity 395 Table 13.1. Relative Humidity of Saturated Salt Solutions Lithium Magnesium Magnesium Sodium Potassium Temperature Chloride Chloride Nitrate Chloride Chloride ( ◦ C) Solution Solution Solution Solution Solution (LiCl, H 2 O) (MgCl, 6H 2 O) (Mg(NO 3 ) 2 ,6H 2 0) (NaCl, 6H 2 O) K 2 SO 4 5 13 33.6 ± 0.3 58 75.7 ± 0.3 98.5 ± 0.9 10 13 33.5 ± 0.2 57 75.7 ± 0.2 98.2 ± 0.8 15 12 33.3 ± 0.2 56 75.6 ± 0.2 97.9 ± 0.6 20 12 33.1 ± 0.2 55 75.5 ± 0.1 97.6 ± 0.5 25 11.3 ± 0.3 32.8 ± 0.3 53 75.3 ± 0.1 97.3 ± 0.5 30 11.3 ± 0.2 32.4 ± 0.1 52 75.1 ± 0.1 97.0 ± 0.4 35 11.3 ± 0.2 32.1 ± 0.1 50 74.9 ± 0.1 96.7 ± 0.4 40 11.2 ± 0.2 31.6 ± 0.1 49 74.7 ± 0.1 96.4 ± 0.4 45 11.2 ± 0.2 31.1 ± 0.1 — 74.5 ± 0.2 96.1 ± 0.4 50 11.1 ± 0.2 30.5 ± 0.1 46 74.6 ± 0.9 95.8 ± 0.5 55 11.0 ± 0.2 29.9 ± 0.2 — 74.5 ± 0.9 — Source: Patissier, B., Walters, D. Basics of relative humidity calibration for Humirel HS1100/HS1101 sensors. Humirel, Toulouse Cedex, 1999. pressures) to induce frost or ice (assuming no prior condensation). The dew point is the temperature at which relative humidity is 100%. In other words, the dew point is the temperature that the air must reach for the air to hold the maximum amount of moisture it can. When the temperature cools to the dew point, the air becomes saturated and fog, dew, or frost can occur. The following equations [4] calculate the dew point from relative humidity and temperature. All temperatures are in Celsius. The saturation vapor pressure over water is found from EW = 10 0.66077+7.5t/(237+t) (13.3) and the dew-point temperature is found from the approximation DP = 237.3 ( ) 0.66077 − log 10 EW RH t (13.4) log 10 EW RH − 8.16077 where (EW) · (RH) EW RH = . 100 The relative humidity displays an inverse relationship with the absolute temperature. The dew-point temperature is usually measured with a chilled mirror. However, below the 0 ◦ C dew point, the measurement becomes uncertain, as moisture eventually freezes and a crystal lattice growth will slowly occur, much like a snowflake. Nevertheless, moisture can exist for a prolonged time below 0 ◦ C in a liquid phase, depending on such variables as molecular agitation, rate of convection, sample gas temperature, contaminations, and so forth.
396 13 Humidity and Moisture Sensors 13.2 Capacitive Sensors An air-filled capacitor may serve as a relative humidity sensor because moisture in the atmosphere changes air electrical permitivity according to the following equation [5]: κ = 1 + 211 ( P + 48P ) s T T H 10 −6 (13.5) where T is the absolute temperature (in K), P is the pressure of moist air (in mm Hg), P s is the pressure of saturated water vapor at temperature T (in mm Hg), H is the relative humidity (in %). Equation (13.5) shows that the dielectric constant of moist air and, therefore, the capacitance are proportional to the relative humidity. Instead of air, the space between the capacitor plates can be filled with an appropriate isolator whose dielectric constant changes significantly upon being subjected to humidity. The capacitive sensor may be formed of a hygroscopic polymer film with metallized electrodes deposited on the opposite sides. In one design [6], the dielectric was composed of a hygrophilic polymer thin film (8–12 µm thick) made of cellulose acetate butyrate and the dimetylephtalate as plasticizer. The size of the film sensor is 12 × 12 mm. The 8-mm-diameter gold porous disk electrodes (200 Å thick) were deposited on the polymer by vacuum deposition. The film was suspended by a holder and the electrodes were connected to the terminals. The capacitance of such a sensor is approximately proportional to relative humidity H C h ≈ C 0 (1 + α h H), (13.6) where C 0 is the capacitance at H = 0. For the use with capacitive sensors, a 2% accuracy in the range from 5% to 90% RH can be achieved with a simple circuit as shown in Fig. 13.1. The sensor and the circuit transfer characteristics are shown in Fig. 13.2. The sensor’s nominal capacitance at 75% RH is 500 pF. It has a quasilinear transfer function with the offset at zero humidity of about 370 pF and a slope of 1.7 pF/% RH. The circuit effectively performs two functions: makes a capacitance-to-voltage conversion and subtracts the offset capacitance to produce an output voltage with zero intercept. The heart of the circuit is a self-clocking analog switch LT1043, which multiplexes several capacitors at the summing junction (virtual ground) of the operational amplifier U 1 . The capacitor C 1 is for the offset capacitance subtraction, whereas the capacitor C 2 is connected in series with the capacitive sensor S 1 . The average voltage across the sensor must be zero; otherwise, electrochemical migration could damage it permanently. The nonpolarized capacitor C 2 protects the sensor against building up any dc charge. Trimpot P 2 adjusts the amount of charge delivered to the sensor and P 1 trims the offset charge which is subtracted from the sensor. The net charge is integrated with the help of the feedback capacitor C 3 . Capacitor C 4 maintains the dc output when the summing junction is disconnected from the sensor. A similar technique can be used for measuring moisture in material samples [7]. Figure 13.3 shows a block diagram of the capacitive measurement system where the dielectric constant of the sample changes the frequency of the oscillator. This method
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HANDBOOK OF MODERN SENSORS PHYSICS,
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HANDBOOK OF MODERN SENSORS PHYSICS,
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To the memory of my father
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Preface Seven years have passed sin
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Contents Preface ..................
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Contents XI 4.5 Lenses ............
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Contents XIII 7.7.1 Micropower Impu
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Contents XV 15 Radiation Detectors
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Contents XVII Table A.9 Physical Pr
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1 Data Acquisition “It’s as lar
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1.1 Sensors, Signals, and Systems 3
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1.1 Sensors, Signals, and Systems 5
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1.2 Sensor Classification 7 oscillo
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1.3 Units of Measurements 9 Table 1
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Table 1.7. SI Basic Units Reference
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2 Sensor Characteristics “O, what
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2.2 Span (Full-Scale Input) 15 Fig.
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2.4 Accuracy 17 2.4 Accuracy Avery
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2.6 Calibration Error 19 To compute
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2.8 Nonlinearity 21 Fig. 2.4. Trans
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2.12 Resolution 23 (A) (B) Fig. 2.7
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2.16 Dynamic Characteristics 25 2.1
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2.16 Dynamic Characteristics 27 Sub
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2.17 Environmental Factors 29 2.17
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2.18 Reliability 31 guide. For inst
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2.20 Uncertainty 33 • Thermal sho
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Table 2.2. Uncertainty Budget for T
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3 Physical Principles of Sensing
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3.1 Electric Charges, Fields, and P
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3.2 Capacitance 45 The capacitor ma
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3.2 Capacitance 47 (A) (B) Fig. 3.6
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3.2 Capacitance 49 h 0 (A) (B) Fig.
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3.3 Magnetism 51 N S S N (A) (B) Fi
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3.3 Magnetism 53 electric charge ca
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3.3 Magnetism 55 3.3.3 Toroid Anoth
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3.4 Induction 57 • Changing the o
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3.5 Resistance 59 Fig. 3.16. Voltag
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3.5 Resistance 61 For pure resistan
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3.5 Resistance 63 resistor) and the
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3.5 Resistance 65 Fig. 3.19. Strain
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3.6 Piezoelectric Effect 67 (A) (B)
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3.6 Piezoelectric Effect 69 Another
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3.6 Piezoelectric Effect 71 Another
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3.6 Piezoelectric Effect 73 absorpt
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3.6 Piezoelectric Effect 75 that en
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3.7 Pyroelectric Effect 77 circuit
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3.7 Pyroelectric Effect 79 through
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3.7 Pyroelectric Effect 81 Fig. 3.2
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3.8 Hall Effect 83 Fig. 3.30. Hall
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Table 3.2. Typical Characteristics
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3.9 Seebeck and Peltier Effects 87
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3.10 Sound Waves 93 If we consider
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3.11 Temperature and Thermal Proper
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3.11 Temperature and Thermal Proper
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3.12 Heat Transfer 99 to about 35
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3.12 Heat Transfer 101 (A) (B) Fig.
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3.12 Heat Transfer 103 Fig. 3.41. S
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3.12 Heat Transfer 105 Fig. 3.42. S
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3.12 Heat Transfer 107 Fig. 3.44. W
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3.12 Heat Transfer 109 (A) (B) Fig.
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3.13 Light 111 [38] whose emissivit
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3.14 Dynamic Models of Sensor Eleme
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References 119 specified and three
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References 121 34. Thomson, W. On t
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124 4 Optical Components of Sensors
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150 Optical Components of Sensors 1
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5 Interface Electronic Circuits 5.1
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5.1 Input Characteristics of Interf
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5.1 Input Characteristics of Interf
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5.2 Amplifiers 157 (A) (B) Fig. 5.5
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5.2 Amplifiers 159 Fig. 5.7. Voltag
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5.2 Amplifiers 161 (A) (B) Fig. 5.9
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5.2 Amplifiers 163 Fig. 5.11. An eq
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5.3 Excitation Circuits 165 5.3.1 C
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5.3 Excitation Circuits 167 (A) (B)
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5.3 Excitation Circuits 169 Fig. 5.
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5.3 Excitation Circuits 171 atures.
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5.3 Excitation Circuits 173 (A) (B)
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5.4 Analog-to-Digital Converters 17
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Table 5.2. Binary Bit Weights and R
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5.5 Direct Digitization and Process
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5.5 Direct Digitization and Process
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5.6 Ratiometric Circuits 191 (A) (B
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5.7 Bridge Circuits 193 determine t
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5.7 Bridge Circuits 195 Fig. 5.38.
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5.7 Bridge Circuits 197 Fig. 5.39.
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It can be solved for the temperatur
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5.8 Data Transmission 201 (A) (B) (
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5.8 Data Transmission 203 wire meth
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5.9 Noise in Sensors and Circuits 2
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5.10 Batteries for Low Power Sensor
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References 225 nickel-metal hydrate
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6 Occupancy and Motion Detectors Se
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6.2 Microwave Motion Detectors 229
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6.2 Microwave Motion Detectors 231
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6.3 Capacitive Occupancy Detectors
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6.3 Capacitive Occupancy Detectors
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6.4 Triboelectric Detectors 237 6.4
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6.5 Optoelectronic Motion Detectors
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and the facet pitch is 6.5 Optoelec
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References 251 Fig. 6.17. Calculate
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7 Position, Displacement, and Level
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7.1 Potentiometric Sensors 255 (A)
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7.2 Gravitational Sensors 257 (A) (
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7.3 Capacitive Sensors 259 (A) (B)
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7.3 Capacitive Sensors 261 Fig. 7.7
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7.4 Inductive and Magnetic Sensors
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7.5 Optical Sensors 275 Therefore,
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7.5 Optical Sensors 277 (A) (B) (C)
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7.5 Optical Sensors 279 (A) (B) Fig
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7.5 Optical Sensors 281 Fig. 7.32.
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7.5 Optical Sensors 283 (A) (B) (C)
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7.5 Optical Sensors 285 is proporti
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7.6 Ultrasonic Sensors 287 (A) (B)
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7.7 Radar Sensors 289 (A) (B) Fig.
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7.7 Radar Sensors 291 (A) (B) Fig.
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7.8 Thickness and Level Sensors 293
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References 299 8. Dakin, J. P., Wad
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8 Velocity and Acceleration Acceler
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8.1 Accelerometer Characteristics 3
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8.2 Capacitive Accelerometers 305 a
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8.3 Piezoresistive Accelerometers 3
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8.5 Thermal Accelerometers 309 Fig.
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8.5 Thermal Accelerometers 311 forc
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8.6 Gyroscopes 313 8.6 Gyroscopes N
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8.6 Gyroscopes 315 (A) (B) Fig. 8.1
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8.6 Gyroscopes 317 Products Company
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8.7 Piezoelectric Cables 319 (A) (B
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References 321 (A) (B) Fig. 8.16.Ap
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9 Force, Strain, and Tactile Sensor
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9.1 Strain Gauges 325 (A) (B) Fig.
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9.2 Tactile Sensors 327 9.2 Tactile
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9.2 Tactile Sensors 329 (A) (B) Fig
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9.2 Tactile Sensors 331 Fig. 9.7. P
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9.2 Tactile Sensors 333 Fig. 9.9. T
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9.3 Piezoelectric Force Sensors 335
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References 337 14. Karrer, E. and L
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10 Pressure Sensors “To learn som
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10.3 Mercury Pressure Sensor 341 1
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10.4 Bellows, Membranes, and Thin P
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15.1 Scintillating Detectors 445 Fi
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15.2 Ionization Detectors 447 emitt
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15.2 Ionization Detectors 449 Fig.
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15.2 Ionization Detectors 451 parti
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15.2 Ionization Detectors 453 There
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References 455 the pure intrinsic t
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16 Temperature Sensors When a scien
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16 Temperature Sensors 459 from whi
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16.1 Thermoresistive Sensors 461 2.
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16.1 Thermoresistive Sensors 463 Ta
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16.1 Thermoresistive Sensors 465 Fi
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16.1 Thermoresistive Sensors 467 pr
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16.1 Thermoresistive Sensors 475 (m
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16.2 Thermoelectric Contact Sensors
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16.3 Semiconductor P-N Junction Sen
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16.4 Optical Temperature Sensors 49
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16.5 Acoustic Temperature Sensor 49
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References 497 plate—the so-calle
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17 Chemical Sensors 1 Chemical sens
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17.3 Classification of Chemical-Sen
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17.4 Direct Sensors 503 17.4 Direct
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17.4 Direct Sensors 505 voltage e.
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17.4 Direct Sensors 507 This reacti
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17.4 Direct Sensors 509 (A) (B) Fig
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17.4 Direct Sensors 511 µm thick a
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17.5 Complex Sensors 513 Fig. 17.11
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17.5 Complex Sensors 515 Fig. 17.12
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17.5 Complex Sensors 517 frequency
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Table 17.1. SAW Chemical Sensors 17
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17.6 Chemical Sensors Versus Instru
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References 531 13. LaCourse, W.R. P
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18 Sensor Materials and Technologie
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18.1 Materials 535 etching is a key
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18.1 Materials 537 Fig. 18.3. The a
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18.1 Materials 539 The following is
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18.1 Materials 541 should be consid
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18.2 Surface Processing 543 sensor
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18.2 Surface Processing 545 On a co
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18.3 Nano-Technology 547 6000-Å la
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18.3 Nano-Technology 549 exposed to
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18.3 Nano-Technology 551 Fig. 18.10
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18.3 Nano-Technology 553 (A) (B) Fi
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References 555 Fig. 18.17. Bonding
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Appendix Table A.1. Chemical Symbol
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Table A.4. SI Conversion Multiples
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Table A.4 Continued Light cd/in. 2
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Table A.4 Continued Cup 2.36588 ×
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Appendix 565 Table A.7. Some Materi
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Appendix 567 Table A.11. Thermoelec
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Table A.14. Mechanical Properties o
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Appendix 571 Table A.18. Typical Em
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Table A.20. Characteristics of C-Zn
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Table A.23 Continued Manufacturer P
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Table A.25. Properties of Glasses S
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Index α-particles, 443 A/D, 175, 1
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Index 581 Coulomb’s law, 40 cross
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Index 583 H 2 O, 108 Hall, 82 Hall
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Index 585 occupancy sensors, 227 od
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Index 587 SAW, 75, 388, 404, 496, 5
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Index 589 velocity sensor, 302 vert
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