handbook of modern sensors

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Index 585 occupancy sensors, 227 odor classification, 528 odor sensor, 524 Oersted, 51 offset, 186 offset voltage, 153, 156 Ohm’s law, 100, 162, 165, 432 olfactory cells, 525 one-shot, 179 OPAM, 156, 172, 188 open-loop, 157 open-loop gain, 188 operational amplifier, 156, 201 optical cavity, 353 optical contrast, 240 optical detection, 412 optical modulation, 514 optical paths, 516 optical power, 412 optical sensor, 494, 514, 520 optocoupler, 403 organic, 29 oscillating hygrometer, 403 oscillating response, 28 oscillating sensor, 516 oscillator, 172, 178, 187, 235, 263, 390, 396 output capacitance, 154 output current, 167 output impedance, 24 output resistance, 165 output signal format, 2 oxygen, 67, 499, 508, 509 p-n junction, 18, 284, 353, 408, 411, 488 palladium, 542 parallel-plate capacitor, 45 parametric methods, 523 Pascal, 339 passive sensor, 7 Pellister, 514 Peltier, 90, 403 Peltier effect, 90, 423, 438 pH, 515 phase, 1, 305 phase lag, 153 phase shift, 27 phenolic, 540 phosphor, 492 photocatalytic sensors, 511 photocathode, 446 photocurrent, 421 photodetector, 131, 276, 410, 419, 445 photodiodes, 410, 411 photoeffect, 37, 284, 407 photoelectron, 445 photomultiplier, 407, 422, 444 photon, 13, 112, 407, 445, 450 photoresist, 148, 548 photoresistor, 195, 243, 410, 420 photosensor, 419 phototransistors, 410, 418 photovoltaic mode, 414, 415 piecewise approximation, 14 piezoelectric, 245, 288, 309, 319, 320, 324, 334, 368, 385, 389, 517 piezoelectric crystal, 431, 496 piezoelectric effect, 66, 496, 518, 534 piezoelectric film, 320, 328, 543 piezoelectric hygrometer, 403 piezoelectric plastics, 540 piezoresistive accelerometer, 307 piezoresistive bridge, 308 piezoresistive effect, 64, 325 piezoresistive gauge, 344 piezoresistive sensors, 350 PIN photodiode, 413 pink noise, 206 pipe, 61 PIR, 145, 245, 426, 427, 430, 437 Pirani gauge, 354 Planck, 103 Planck’s constant, 407 Planck’s law, 103 plano-convex lens, 136 plastic, 112, 140, 231, 331, 536 platinum, 63, 64, 145, 461, 487, 505, 514, 542 platinum film, 436 Poisson ratio, 92 polarization, 46, 71, 79, 112, 147, 276 polarization filter, 112, 277 poling, 43, 70 polycarbonate, 539 polyester, 539 polyethylene, 107, 155, 536, 539 polymer, 74, 140, 332, 396 polymer films, 80, 512 polymer matrix, 512, 525
586 Index polymerization, 538 polypropylene, 539 polysilicon, 430, 436, 535, 550 polystyrene, 399 polyurethane, 539 popcorn noise, 205 position, 253, 270 position-sensitive detector, 283 potential, 511 potentiometer, 255 potentiometric devices, 503, 507 preaging, 474 predictive, 457 pressure, 189, 324, 339 pressure gradient, 361 pressure sensor, 6, 197, 227, 280, 341, 350, 373, 381 primary cells, 223 prototype, 219 proximity, 234 proximity detector, 277 proximity sensor, 253, 260 PS, 536 PSD, 281, 283, 427 p-substrate, 85 PTC thermistor, 477 PVDF, 71, 72, 247, 320, 328, 385 PWM, 189 pyroelectric, 76, 245, 430 pyroelectric coefficient, 247 pyroelectric current, 433 pyroelectric sensor, 30, 73, 76, 161 pyroelectricity, 77 pyrometry, 425 PZT, 389, 434 Q-spoilers, 175 quantification, 499 quantum detector, 161, 407, 423 quartz, 67, 403, 516, 534 quenching, 450 radar, 6, 289, 297 radiation, 95, 99, 111, 133, 239, 448, 451, 457 radiation bandwidth, 104 radiation detection, 447 radiation spectrum, 103 radio waves, 291 radio-frequency, 172 radioactivity, 443 ratiometric technique, 190 RC, 171 reactive ion etching, 553 redox reactions, 506 reference, 190, 200 reference diode, 170 reference electrode, 505, 510 reference sensor, 484 reference temperature, 62, 485 reference voltage, 187 reflection, 124 reflective surface, 134 reflectivity, 133 refraction, 124 refractive index, 141, 147 relative humidity, 49, 394, 396 relative sensors, 461 reliability, 31 Renaldi, 95 repeatability, 23 resistance, 59, 254, 284, 341, 535 resistance multiplication, 164 resistive bridge, 193 resistive load, 165 resistive sensor, 153 resistivity, 60 resistor, 61, 164, 179, 190, 203, 247, 344, 349, 372, 375, 465, 476 resolution, 23, 181, 186, 205, 316, 374 resonant, 304, 387 resonant sensors, 553 resonator, 317 retina, 144 return electrode, 505 Reyleigh waves, 517 RF, 229 RH, 32 rhodium, 542 roentgen, 444 root-sum-of-squares, 34 rotor, 313 RTD, 355, 366, 477, 481, 514 RVDT, 264 Sagnac effect, 317 sampling rate, 177 saturation, 22
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HANDBOOK OF MODERN SENSORS PHYSICS,
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HANDBOOK OF MODERN SENSORS PHYSICS,
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To the memory of my father
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Preface Seven years have passed sin
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Contents Preface ..................
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Contents XI 4.5 Lenses ............
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Contents XIII 7.7.1 Micropower Impu
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Contents XV 15 Radiation Detectors
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Contents XVII Table A.9 Physical Pr
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1 Data Acquisition “It’s as lar
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1.1 Sensors, Signals, and Systems 3
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1.1 Sensors, Signals, and Systems 5
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1.2 Sensor Classification 7 oscillo
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1.3 Units of Measurements 9 Table 1
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Table 1.7. SI Basic Units Reference
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2 Sensor Characteristics “O, what
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2.2 Span (Full-Scale Input) 15 Fig.
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2.4 Accuracy 17 2.4 Accuracy Avery
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2.6 Calibration Error 19 To compute
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2.8 Nonlinearity 21 Fig. 2.4. Trans
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2.12 Resolution 23 (A) (B) Fig. 2.7
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2.16 Dynamic Characteristics 25 2.1
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2.16 Dynamic Characteristics 27 Sub
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2.17 Environmental Factors 29 2.17
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2.18 Reliability 31 guide. For inst
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2.20 Uncertainty 33 • Thermal sho
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Table 2.2. Uncertainty Budget for T
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3 Physical Principles of Sensing
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3.1 Electric Charges, Fields, and P
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3.2 Capacitance 45 The capacitor ma
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3.2 Capacitance 47 (A) (B) Fig. 3.6
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3.2 Capacitance 49 h 0 (A) (B) Fig.
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3.3 Magnetism 51 N S S N (A) (B) Fi
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3.3 Magnetism 53 electric charge ca
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3.3 Magnetism 55 3.3.3 Toroid Anoth
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3.4 Induction 57 • Changing the o
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3.5 Resistance 59 Fig. 3.16. Voltag
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3.5 Resistance 61 For pure resistan
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3.5 Resistance 63 resistor) and the
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3.5 Resistance 65 Fig. 3.19. Strain
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3.6 Piezoelectric Effect 67 (A) (B)
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3.6 Piezoelectric Effect 69 Another
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3.6 Piezoelectric Effect 71 Another
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3.6 Piezoelectric Effect 73 absorpt
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3.6 Piezoelectric Effect 75 that en
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3.7 Pyroelectric Effect 77 circuit
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3.7 Pyroelectric Effect 79 through
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3.7 Pyroelectric Effect 81 Fig. 3.2
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3.8 Hall Effect 83 Fig. 3.30. Hall
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Table 3.2. Typical Characteristics
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3.9 Seebeck and Peltier Effects 87
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3.10 Sound Waves 93 If we consider
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3.11 Temperature and Thermal Proper
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3.11 Temperature and Thermal Proper
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3.12 Heat Transfer 99 to about 35
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3.12 Heat Transfer 101 (A) (B) Fig.
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3.12 Heat Transfer 103 Fig. 3.41. S
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3.12 Heat Transfer 105 Fig. 3.42. S
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3.12 Heat Transfer 107 Fig. 3.44. W
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3.12 Heat Transfer 109 (A) (B) Fig.
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3.13 Light 111 [38] whose emissivit
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3.14 Dynamic Models of Sensor Eleme
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References 119 specified and three
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References 121 34. Thomson, W. On t
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124 4 Optical Components of Sensors
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150 Optical Components of Sensors 1
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5 Interface Electronic Circuits 5.1
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5.1 Input Characteristics of Interf
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5.1 Input Characteristics of Interf
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5.2 Amplifiers 157 (A) (B) Fig. 5.5
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5.2 Amplifiers 159 Fig. 5.7. Voltag
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5.2 Amplifiers 161 (A) (B) Fig. 5.9
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5.2 Amplifiers 163 Fig. 5.11. An eq
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5.3 Excitation Circuits 165 5.3.1 C
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5.3 Excitation Circuits 167 (A) (B)
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5.3 Excitation Circuits 169 Fig. 5.
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5.3 Excitation Circuits 171 atures.
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5.3 Excitation Circuits 173 (A) (B)
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5.4 Analog-to-Digital Converters 17
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Table 5.2. Binary Bit Weights and R
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5.5 Direct Digitization and Process
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5.5 Direct Digitization and Process
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5.6 Ratiometric Circuits 191 (A) (B
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5.7 Bridge Circuits 193 determine t
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5.7 Bridge Circuits 195 Fig. 5.38.
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5.7 Bridge Circuits 197 Fig. 5.39.
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It can be solved for the temperatur
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5.8 Data Transmission 201 (A) (B) (
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5.8 Data Transmission 203 wire meth
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5.9 Noise in Sensors and Circuits 2
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5.10 Batteries for Low Power Sensor
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References 225 nickel-metal hydrate
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6 Occupancy and Motion Detectors Se
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6.2 Microwave Motion Detectors 229
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6.2 Microwave Motion Detectors 231
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6.3 Capacitive Occupancy Detectors
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6.3 Capacitive Occupancy Detectors
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6.4 Triboelectric Detectors 237 6.4
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6.5 Optoelectronic Motion Detectors
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and the facet pitch is 6.5 Optoelec
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References 251 Fig. 6.17. Calculate
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7 Position, Displacement, and Level
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7.1 Potentiometric Sensors 255 (A)
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7.2 Gravitational Sensors 257 (A) (
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7.3 Capacitive Sensors 259 (A) (B)
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7.3 Capacitive Sensors 261 Fig. 7.7
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7.4 Inductive and Magnetic Sensors
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7.5 Optical Sensors 275 Therefore,
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7.5 Optical Sensors 277 (A) (B) (C)
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7.5 Optical Sensors 279 (A) (B) Fig
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7.5 Optical Sensors 281 Fig. 7.32.
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7.5 Optical Sensors 283 (A) (B) (C)
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7.5 Optical Sensors 285 is proporti
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7.6 Ultrasonic Sensors 287 (A) (B)
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7.7 Radar Sensors 289 (A) (B) Fig.
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7.7 Radar Sensors 291 (A) (B) Fig.
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7.8 Thickness and Level Sensors 293
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References 299 8. Dakin, J. P., Wad
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8 Velocity and Acceleration Acceler
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8.1 Accelerometer Characteristics 3
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8.2 Capacitive Accelerometers 305 a
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8.3 Piezoresistive Accelerometers 3
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8.5 Thermal Accelerometers 309 Fig.
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8.5 Thermal Accelerometers 311 forc
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8.6 Gyroscopes 313 8.6 Gyroscopes N
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8.6 Gyroscopes 315 (A) (B) Fig. 8.1
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8.6 Gyroscopes 317 Products Company
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8.7 Piezoelectric Cables 319 (A) (B
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References 321 (A) (B) Fig. 8.16.Ap
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9 Force, Strain, and Tactile Sensor
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9.1 Strain Gauges 325 (A) (B) Fig.
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9.2 Tactile Sensors 327 9.2 Tactile
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9.2 Tactile Sensors 329 (A) (B) Fig
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9.2 Tactile Sensors 331 Fig. 9.7. P
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9.2 Tactile Sensors 333 Fig. 9.9. T
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9.3 Piezoelectric Force Sensors 335
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References 337 14. Karrer, E. and L
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10 Pressure Sensors “To learn som
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10.3 Mercury Pressure Sensor 341 1
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10.4 Bellows, Membranes, and Thin P
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10.5 Piezoresistive Sensors 345 Fig
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10.5 Piezoresistive Sensors 347 bri
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10.6 Capacitive Sensors 349 (A) (B)
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10.7 VRP Sensors 351 (A) (B) Fig. 1
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10.8 Optoelectronic Sensors 353 Fig
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10.9 Vacuum Sensors 355 (A) (B) Fig
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References 357 (A) (B) (C) Fig. 10.
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11 Flow Sensors It’s a simple tas
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11.2 Pressure Gradient Technique 36
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11.3 Thermal Transport Sensors 363
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11.3 Thermal Transport Sensors 365
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11.4 Ultrasonic Sensors 367 A senso
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11.4 Ultrasonic Sensors 369 Fig. 11
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induced in the liquid. The magnitud
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11.6 Microflow Sensors 373 (A) (B)
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11.7 Breeze Sensor 375 (A) (B) Fig.
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11.9 Drag Force Flow Sensors 377 Wi
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References 379 11. Philip-Chandy, R
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12 Acoustic Sensors “Your ears wi
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12.3 Fiber-Optic Microphone 383 (A)
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12.4 Piezoelectric Microphones 385
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12.5 Electret Microphones 387 Fig.
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12.6 Solid-State Acoustic Detectors
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References 391 References 1. Hohm,
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13 Humidity and Moisture Sensors 13
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13.1 Concept of Humidity 395 Table
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13.2 Capacitive Sensors 397 Fig. 13
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13.3 Electrical Conductivity Sensor
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13.4 Thermal Conductivity Sensor 40
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13.6 Oscillating Hygrometer 403 chi
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References 405 9. Jachowicz, R. S.
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14 Light Detectors “There is noth
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14.1 Introduction 409 Table 14.1. B
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14.2 Photodiodes 411 Maximum revers
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14.2 Photodiodes 413 when i = 0), w
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14.2 Photodiodes 415 (A) (B) (C) Fi
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14.2 Photodiodes 417 Fig. 14.9. Res
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14.3 Phototransistor 419 Fig. 14.12
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14.4 Photoresistors 421 (A) (B) Fig
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14.5 Cooled Detectors 423 (A) (B) F
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14.6 Thermal Detectors 425 Table 14
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14.6 Thermal Detectors 427 Fig. 14.
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Table 14.3. Typical Specifications
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14.6 Thermal Detectors 431 A dual e
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14.6 Thermal Detectors 433 Fig. 14.
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14.6 Thermal Detectors 435 (A) (B)
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14.6 Thermal Detectors 437 Section
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14.7 Gas Flame Detectors 439 P = V
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References 441 housing assures wide
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15 Radiation Detectors Figure 3.41
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15.1 Scintillating Detectors 445 Fi
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15.2 Ionization Detectors 447 emitt
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15.2 Ionization Detectors 449 Fig.
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15.2 Ionization Detectors 451 parti
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15.2 Ionization Detectors 453 There
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References 455 the pure intrinsic t
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16 Temperature Sensors When a scien
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16 Temperature Sensors 459 from whi
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16.1 Thermoresistive Sensors 461 2.
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16.1 Thermoresistive Sensors 463 Ta
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16.1 Thermoresistive Sensors 465 Fi
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16.1 Thermoresistive Sensors 467 pr
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16.1 Thermoresistive Sensors 475 (m
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16.2 Thermoelectric Contact Sensors
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16.3 Semiconductor P-N Junction Sen
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16.4 Optical Temperature Sensors 49
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16.4 Optical Temperature Sensors 49
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16.5 Acoustic Temperature Sensor 49
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References 497 plate—the so-calle
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17 Chemical Sensors 1 Chemical sens
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17.3 Classification of Chemical-Sen
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17.4 Direct Sensors 503 17.4 Direct
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17.4 Direct Sensors 505 voltage e.
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17.4 Direct Sensors 507 This reacti
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17.4 Direct Sensors 509 (A) (B) Fig
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17.4 Direct Sensors 511 µm thick a
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17.5 Complex Sensors 513 Fig. 17.11
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17.5 Complex Sensors 515 Fig. 17.12
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17.5 Complex Sensors 517 frequency
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Table 17.1. SAW Chemical Sensors 17
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17.6 Chemical Sensors Versus Instru
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References 531 13. LaCourse, W.R. P
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18 Sensor Materials and Technologie
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Page 558 and 559: 18.1 Materials 539 The following is
Page 560 and 561: 18.1 Materials 541 should be consid
Page 562 and 563: 18.2 Surface Processing 543 sensor
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Page 566 and 567: 18.3 Nano-Technology 547 6000-Å la
Page 568 and 569: 18.3 Nano-Technology 549 exposed to
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Page 572 and 573: 18.3 Nano-Technology 553 (A) (B) Fi
Page 574 and 575: References 555 Fig. 18.17. Bonding
Page 576 and 577: Appendix Table A.1. Chemical Symbol
Page 578 and 579: Table A.4. SI Conversion Multiples
Page 580 and 581: Table A.4 Continued Light cd/in. 2
Page 582 and 583: Table A.4 Continued Cup 2.36588 ×
Page 584 and 585: Appendix 565 Table A.7. Some Materi
Page 586 and 587: Appendix 567 Table A.11. Thermoelec
Page 588 and 589: Table A.14. Mechanical Properties o
Page 590 and 591: Appendix 571 Table A.18. Typical Em
Page 592 and 593: Table A.20. Characteristics of C-Zn
Page 594 and 595: Table A.23 Continued Manufacturer P
Page 596 and 597: Table A.25. Properties of Glasses S
Page 598 and 599: Index α-particles, 443 A/D, 175, 1
Page 600 and 601: Index 581 Coulomb’s law, 40 cross
Page 602 and 603: Index 583 H 2 O, 108 Hall, 82 Hall
Page 606 and 607: Index 587 SAW, 75, 388, 404, 496, 5
Page 608: Index 589 velocity sensor, 302 vert
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