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18.1 Materials 541 should be considered as a compromise alternative. Aluminum has a high strength-toweigh ratio and possesses its own anticorrosion mechanism. When exposed to air, aluminum does not oxide progressively, like iron would do. The protection is provided by a microscopic oxide coating which forms on the surface and seals the bare metal from the environment. There are hundreds of aluminum alloys. They can be processed in many ways, such as drawing, casting, and stamping. Some alloys can be soldered and welded. In addition to excellent electrical properties, aluminum is a superb reflector of light over nearly the entire spectrum from UV to radio waves. Aluminum coatings are widely used for mirrors and waveguides. In the mid- and far-infrared range, the only superior to aluminum reflector is gold. Beryllium has several remarkable properties. Its low density (two-thirds that of aluminum) is combined with a high modulus per weight (five times that of steel), high specific heat, excellent dimensional stability, and transparency to X-rays. However, this is an expensive metal. Like aluminum, beryllium forms a protective coating on its surface, thus resisting corrosion. It may be processed by many conventional methods, including powder cold pressing. The metal is used as X-ray windows, optical platforms, mirror substrates, and satellite structures. Magnesium is a very light metal with a high strength-to-weight ratio. Due to its low modulus of elasticity, it can absorb energy elastically, which gives its good damping characteristics. The material is very easy to process by most of metal-working techniques. Nickel allows the design of very tough structures which are also resistant to corrosion. When compared with steel, the nickel alloys have ultrahigh strength and a high modulus of elasticity. Its alloys include binary systems with copper, silicon, and molybdenum. Nickel and its alloys preserve their mechanical properties down to cryogenic temperatures and at high temperatures up to 1200 ◦ C. Nickels is used in high-performance superalloys such as Inconell, Monel (Ni–Cu), Ni–Cr, and Ni–Cr–Fe alloys. Copper combines very good thermal and electrical conductivity properties (second only to pure silver) with corrosion resistance and relative ease of processing. However, its strength-to-weight ratio is relatively poor. Copper is also difficult to machine. Copper and its alloys—the brasses and bronzes—come in variety of forms, including films. Brasses are alloys which contain zinc and other designated elements. Bronzes comprise several main groups: copper–tin–phosphorus (phosphor bronze), copper–tin–lead–phosphorus (lead phosphor bronzes), and copper–silicon (silicon bronzes) alloys. Under outdoor condition, copper develops a blue-green patina. This can be prevented by applying an acrylic coating. A copper alloy with beryllium has excellent mechanical properties and used to make springs. Lead is the most impervious of all common metals to X-rays and γ - radiation. It resists attack by many corrosive chemicals, most types of soil, and marine and industrial environments. It has a low melting temperature, ease of casting and forming, and good sound and vibration absorption. It possesses natural lubricity and wear resistance. Lead is rarely used in pure form. Its most common alloys are “hard lead” (1–13% of antimony), calcium, and tin alloys which have better strength and hardness.
542 18 Sensor Materials and Technologies Platinum is a silver-white precious metal which is extremely malleable, ductile, and corrosion resistant. Its positive temperature coefficient of resistance is very stable and reproducible, which allows its use in temperature sensing. Gold is extremely soft and chemically inert metal. It can only be attacked by aqua regia and by sodium and potassium in the presence of oxygen. One gram of pure gold can be worked into a leaf covering 5000 cm 2 and only less than 0.1 µm thick. Mainly, it is used for plating and is alloyed with other metals like copper, nickel, and silver. In sensor applications, gold is used for fabricating electrical contacts and plating mirrors and waveguides operating in the mid- and far-infrared spectral ranges. Silver is the least costly of all precious metals. It is very malleable and corrosion resistant. It has the highest electrical and thermal conductivity of all metals. Palladium, iridium, and rhodium resemble and behave like platinum. They are used as electrical coatings to produce hybrid and printed circuit boards and various ceramic substrates with electrical conductors.Another application is in the fabrication of high-quality reflectors operating in a broad spectral range, especially at elevated temperatures or highly corrosive environments. Iridium has the best corrosion resistance of all metals and thus used in the most critical applications. Molybdenum maintains its strength and rigidity up to 1600 ◦ C. The metal and its alloys are readily machinable by conventional tools. In nonoxidizing environments, it resists attacks by most acids. Its prime application is for high-temperature devices, such as heating elements and reflectors of intense infrared radiation for hightemperature furnaces. Molybdenum has a low coefficient of thermal expansion and resists erosion by molten metals. Tungsten is many respects is similar to molybdenum, but can operate even at higher temperatures. A thermocouple sensor fabricated of tungsten is alloyed with 25% rhenium with another wire, in a thermocouple with 5% rhenium. Zinc is seldom used alone, except for coating; it is mainly used as an additive in many alloys. 18.1.4 Ceramics In sensor technologies, ceramics are very useful crystalline materials because of their structural strength, thermal stability, light weight, resistance to many chemicals, ability to bond with other materials, and excellent electrical properties.Although most metals form at least one chemical compound with oxygen, only a handful of oxides are useful as the principal constituent of ceramics. Examples are alumina and beryllia. The natural alloying element in alumina is silica; however, alumina can be alloyed with chromium, magnesium, calcium, and other elements. Several metal carbides and nitrades qualify as ceramics. The most commonly used are boron carbide and nitrate and aluminum nitrade (Table A.24). Whenever fast heat transfer is of importance, aluminum nitrade should be considered, whereas silicon carbide has high dielectric constant, which makes it attractive for designing capacitive sensors. Due to their hardness, most ceramics require special processing. A precise and cost-effective method of cutting various shapes of ceramic substrates is scribing, machining, and drilling by use of computer-controlled CO 2 laser. Ceramics for the
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HANDBOOK OF MODERN SENSORS PHYSICS,
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HANDBOOK OF MODERN SENSORS PHYSICS,
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To the memory of my father
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Preface Seven years have passed sin
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Contents Preface ..................
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Contents XI 4.5 Lenses ............
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Contents XIII 7.7.1 Micropower Impu
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Contents XV 15 Radiation Detectors
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Contents XVII Table A.9 Physical Pr
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1 Data Acquisition “It’s as lar
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1.1 Sensors, Signals, and Systems 3
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1.1 Sensors, Signals, and Systems 5
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1.2 Sensor Classification 7 oscillo
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1.3 Units of Measurements 9 Table 1
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Table 1.7. SI Basic Units Reference
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2 Sensor Characteristics “O, what
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2.2 Span (Full-Scale Input) 15 Fig.
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2.4 Accuracy 17 2.4 Accuracy Avery
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2.6 Calibration Error 19 To compute
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2.8 Nonlinearity 21 Fig. 2.4. Trans
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2.12 Resolution 23 (A) (B) Fig. 2.7
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2.16 Dynamic Characteristics 25 2.1
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2.16 Dynamic Characteristics 27 Sub
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2.17 Environmental Factors 29 2.17
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2.18 Reliability 31 guide. For inst
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2.20 Uncertainty 33 • Thermal sho
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Table 2.2. Uncertainty Budget for T
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3 Physical Principles of Sensing
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3.1 Electric Charges, Fields, and P
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3.2 Capacitance 45 The capacitor ma
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3.2 Capacitance 47 (A) (B) Fig. 3.6
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3.2 Capacitance 49 h 0 (A) (B) Fig.
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3.3 Magnetism 51 N S S N (A) (B) Fi
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3.3 Magnetism 53 electric charge ca
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3.3 Magnetism 55 3.3.3 Toroid Anoth
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3.4 Induction 57 • Changing the o
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3.5 Resistance 59 Fig. 3.16. Voltag
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3.5 Resistance 61 For pure resistan
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3.5 Resistance 63 resistor) and the
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3.5 Resistance 65 Fig. 3.19. Strain
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3.6 Piezoelectric Effect 67 (A) (B)
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3.6 Piezoelectric Effect 69 Another
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3.6 Piezoelectric Effect 71 Another
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3.6 Piezoelectric Effect 73 absorpt
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3.6 Piezoelectric Effect 75 that en
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3.7 Pyroelectric Effect 77 circuit
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3.7 Pyroelectric Effect 79 through
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3.7 Pyroelectric Effect 81 Fig. 3.2
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3.8 Hall Effect 83 Fig. 3.30. Hall
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Table 3.2. Typical Characteristics
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3.9 Seebeck and Peltier Effects 87
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3.10 Sound Waves 93 If we consider
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3.11 Temperature and Thermal Proper
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3.11 Temperature and Thermal Proper
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3.12 Heat Transfer 99 to about 35
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3.12 Heat Transfer 101 (A) (B) Fig.
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3.12 Heat Transfer 103 Fig. 3.41. S
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3.12 Heat Transfer 105 Fig. 3.42. S
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3.12 Heat Transfer 107 Fig. 3.44. W
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3.12 Heat Transfer 109 (A) (B) Fig.
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3.13 Light 111 [38] whose emissivit
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3.14 Dynamic Models of Sensor Eleme
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References 119 specified and three
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References 121 34. Thomson, W. On t
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124 4 Optical Components of Sensors
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150 Optical Components of Sensors 1
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5 Interface Electronic Circuits 5.1
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5.1 Input Characteristics of Interf
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5.1 Input Characteristics of Interf
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5.2 Amplifiers 157 (A) (B) Fig. 5.5
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5.2 Amplifiers 159 Fig. 5.7. Voltag
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5.2 Amplifiers 161 (A) (B) Fig. 5.9
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5.2 Amplifiers 163 Fig. 5.11. An eq
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5.3 Excitation Circuits 165 5.3.1 C
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5.3 Excitation Circuits 167 (A) (B)
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5.3 Excitation Circuits 169 Fig. 5.
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5.3 Excitation Circuits 171 atures.
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5.3 Excitation Circuits 173 (A) (B)
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5.4 Analog-to-Digital Converters 17
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Table 5.2. Binary Bit Weights and R
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5.5 Direct Digitization and Process
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5.5 Direct Digitization and Process
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5.6 Ratiometric Circuits 191 (A) (B
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5.7 Bridge Circuits 193 determine t
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5.7 Bridge Circuits 195 Fig. 5.38.
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5.7 Bridge Circuits 197 Fig. 5.39.
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It can be solved for the temperatur
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5.8 Data Transmission 201 (A) (B) (
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5.8 Data Transmission 203 wire meth
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5.9 Noise in Sensors and Circuits 2
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5.10 Batteries for Low Power Sensor
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References 225 nickel-metal hydrate
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6 Occupancy and Motion Detectors Se
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6.2 Microwave Motion Detectors 229
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6.2 Microwave Motion Detectors 231
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6.3 Capacitive Occupancy Detectors
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6.3 Capacitive Occupancy Detectors
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6.4 Triboelectric Detectors 237 6.4
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6.5 Optoelectronic Motion Detectors
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and the facet pitch is 6.5 Optoelec
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References 251 Fig. 6.17. Calculate
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7 Position, Displacement, and Level
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7.1 Potentiometric Sensors 255 (A)
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7.2 Gravitational Sensors 257 (A) (
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7.3 Capacitive Sensors 259 (A) (B)
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7.3 Capacitive Sensors 261 Fig. 7.7
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7.4 Inductive and Magnetic Sensors
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7.5 Optical Sensors 275 Therefore,
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7.5 Optical Sensors 277 (A) (B) (C)
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7.5 Optical Sensors 279 (A) (B) Fig
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7.5 Optical Sensors 281 Fig. 7.32.
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7.5 Optical Sensors 283 (A) (B) (C)
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7.5 Optical Sensors 285 is proporti
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7.6 Ultrasonic Sensors 287 (A) (B)
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7.7 Radar Sensors 289 (A) (B) Fig.
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7.7 Radar Sensors 291 (A) (B) Fig.
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7.8 Thickness and Level Sensors 293
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References 299 8. Dakin, J. P., Wad
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8 Velocity and Acceleration Acceler
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8.1 Accelerometer Characteristics 3
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8.2 Capacitive Accelerometers 305 a
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8.3 Piezoresistive Accelerometers 3
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8.5 Thermal Accelerometers 309 Fig.
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8.5 Thermal Accelerometers 311 forc
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8.6 Gyroscopes 313 8.6 Gyroscopes N
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8.6 Gyroscopes 315 (A) (B) Fig. 8.1
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8.6 Gyroscopes 317 Products Company
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8.7 Piezoelectric Cables 319 (A) (B
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References 321 (A) (B) Fig. 8.16.Ap
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9 Force, Strain, and Tactile Sensor
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9.1 Strain Gauges 325 (A) (B) Fig.
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9.2 Tactile Sensors 327 9.2 Tactile
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9.2 Tactile Sensors 329 (A) (B) Fig
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9.2 Tactile Sensors 331 Fig. 9.7. P
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9.2 Tactile Sensors 333 Fig. 9.9. T
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9.3 Piezoelectric Force Sensors 335
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References 337 14. Karrer, E. and L
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10 Pressure Sensors “To learn som
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10.3 Mercury Pressure Sensor 341 1
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10.4 Bellows, Membranes, and Thin P
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10.5 Piezoresistive Sensors 345 Fig
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10.5 Piezoresistive Sensors 347 bri
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10.6 Capacitive Sensors 349 (A) (B)
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10.7 VRP Sensors 351 (A) (B) Fig. 1
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10.8 Optoelectronic Sensors 353 Fig
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10.9 Vacuum Sensors 355 (A) (B) Fig
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References 357 (A) (B) (C) Fig. 10.
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11 Flow Sensors It’s a simple tas
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11.2 Pressure Gradient Technique 36
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11.3 Thermal Transport Sensors 363
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11.3 Thermal Transport Sensors 365
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11.4 Ultrasonic Sensors 367 A senso
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11.4 Ultrasonic Sensors 369 Fig. 11
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induced in the liquid. The magnitud
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11.6 Microflow Sensors 373 (A) (B)
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11.7 Breeze Sensor 375 (A) (B) Fig.
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11.9 Drag Force Flow Sensors 377 Wi
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References 379 11. Philip-Chandy, R
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12 Acoustic Sensors “Your ears wi
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12.3 Fiber-Optic Microphone 383 (A)
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12.4 Piezoelectric Microphones 385
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12.5 Electret Microphones 387 Fig.
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12.6 Solid-State Acoustic Detectors
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References 391 References 1. Hohm,
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13 Humidity and Moisture Sensors 13
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13.1 Concept of Humidity 395 Table
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13.2 Capacitive Sensors 397 Fig. 13
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13.3 Electrical Conductivity Sensor
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13.4 Thermal Conductivity Sensor 40
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13.6 Oscillating Hygrometer 403 chi
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References 405 9. Jachowicz, R. S.
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14 Light Detectors “There is noth
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14.1 Introduction 409 Table 14.1. B
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14.2 Photodiodes 411 Maximum revers
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14.2 Photodiodes 413 when i = 0), w
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14.2 Photodiodes 415 (A) (B) (C) Fi
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14.2 Photodiodes 417 Fig. 14.9. Res
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14.3 Phototransistor 419 Fig. 14.12
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14.4 Photoresistors 421 (A) (B) Fig
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14.5 Cooled Detectors 423 (A) (B) F
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14.6 Thermal Detectors 425 Table 14
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14.6 Thermal Detectors 427 Fig. 14.
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Table 14.3. Typical Specifications
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14.6 Thermal Detectors 431 A dual e
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14.6 Thermal Detectors 433 Fig. 14.
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14.6 Thermal Detectors 435 (A) (B)
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14.6 Thermal Detectors 437 Section
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14.7 Gas Flame Detectors 439 P = V
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References 441 housing assures wide
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15 Radiation Detectors Figure 3.41
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15.1 Scintillating Detectors 445 Fi
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15.2 Ionization Detectors 447 emitt
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15.2 Ionization Detectors 449 Fig.
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15.2 Ionization Detectors 451 parti
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15.2 Ionization Detectors 453 There
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References 455 the pure intrinsic t
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16 Temperature Sensors When a scien
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16 Temperature Sensors 459 from whi
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16.1 Thermoresistive Sensors 461 2.
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16.1 Thermoresistive Sensors 463 Ta
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16.1 Thermoresistive Sensors 465 Fi
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16.1 Thermoresistive Sensors 467 pr
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16.1 Thermoresistive Sensors 475 (m
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16.2 Thermoelectric Contact Sensors
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16.3 Semiconductor P-N Junction Sen
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Page 516 and 517: References 497 plate—the so-calle
Page 518 and 519: 17 Chemical Sensors 1 Chemical sens
Page 520 and 521: 17.3 Classification of Chemical-Sen
Page 522 and 523: 17.4 Direct Sensors 503 17.4 Direct
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Page 534 and 535: 17.5 Complex Sensors 515 Fig. 17.12
Page 536 and 537: 17.5 Complex Sensors 517 frequency
Page 538 and 539: Table 17.1. SAW Chemical Sensors 17
Page 540 and 541: 17.6 Chemical Sensors Versus Instru
Page 550 and 551: References 531 13. LaCourse, W.R. P
Page 552 and 553: 18 Sensor Materials and Technologie
Page 554 and 555: 18.1 Materials 535 etching is a key
Page 556 and 557: 18.1 Materials 537 Fig. 18.3. The a
Page 558 and 559: 18.1 Materials 539 The following is
Page 562 and 563: 18.2 Surface Processing 543 sensor
Page 564 and 565: 18.2 Surface Processing 545 On a co
Page 566 and 567: 18.3 Nano-Technology 547 6000-Å la
Page 568 and 569: 18.3 Nano-Technology 549 exposed to
Page 570 and 571: 18.3 Nano-Technology 551 Fig. 18.10
Page 572 and 573: 18.3 Nano-Technology 553 (A) (B) Fi
Page 574 and 575: References 555 Fig. 18.17. Bonding
Page 576 and 577: Appendix Table A.1. Chemical Symbol
Page 578 and 579: Table A.4. SI Conversion Multiples
Page 580 and 581: Table A.4 Continued Light cd/in. 2
Page 582 and 583: Table A.4 Continued Cup 2.36588 ×
Page 584 and 585: Appendix 565 Table A.7. Some Materi
Page 586 and 587: Appendix 567 Table A.11. Thermoelec
Page 588 and 589: Table A.14. Mechanical Properties o
Page 590 and 591: Appendix 571 Table A.18. Typical Em
Page 592 and 593: Table A.20. Characteristics of C-Zn
Page 594 and 595: Table A.23 Continued Manufacturer P
Page 596 and 597: Table A.25. Properties of Glasses S
Page 598 and 599: Index α-particles, 443 A/D, 175, 1
Page 600 and 601: Index 581 Coulomb’s law, 40 cross
Page 602 and 603: Index 583 H 2 O, 108 Hall, 82 Hall
Page 604 and 605: Index 585 occupancy sensors, 227 od
Page 606 and 607: Index 587 SAW, 75, 388, 404, 496, 5
Page 608: Index 589 velocity sensor, 302 vert
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