handbook of modern sensors

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Table A.4 Continued Light cd/in. 2 1550 cd/m 2 lambert 3.183 × 10 3 cd/m 2 Foot candle 10.76 lx (lux) lm/ft 2 10.76 lm/m 2 Foot lambert 3.426 cd/m 2 Mass [kilogram (kg)] Carat (metric) 2 × 10 −4 Ounce (troy or apothecary) 3.110348 × 10 −2 Grain 6.479891 × 10 −5 Pennyweight 1.555 × 10 −3 Gram 0.001 Pound (lb avoirdupois) 0.4535924 Hundred weight (long) 50.802 Pound (troy or apothecary) 0.3732 Hundred weight (short) 45.359 Slug 14.5939 kgf s 2 /m 9.806650 Ton (long, 2120 lbs) 907.184 Ounce (avoirdupois) 2.834952 × 10 −2 Ton (metric) 1000 Mass per Unit Time (Includes Flow) perm (0 ◦ C) 5.721 × 10 −11 kg/(Pa s m 2 ) lbs/(hp h) SPC (specific fuel 1.689659 × 10 −7 kg/J consumption) lbs/h 1.2599 × 10 −4 kg/s Ton (short)/h 0.25199 kg/s lbs/s 0.4535912 kg/s Mass per Unit Volume (Includes Density and Capacity) (kg/m3) oz (avoirdupois)/gal 6.236 oz (avoirdupois)/gal 7.489 (U.K. liquid) (U.S. liquid) oz (avoirdupois)/in. 3 1729.99 Slug/ft 3 515.3788 lbs/gal (U.S. liquid) 11.9826 kg/m 3 Ton (long)/yd 3 1328.939 Power: watt (W) Btu (International)/s 1055.056 Horsepower (electric) 746 cal/s 4.184 Horsepower (metric) 735.499 erg/s 10 −7 Horsepower (U.K.) 745.7 Horsepower (550 ft lbf/s) 745.6999 Ton of refrigeration 3517 (12,000 Btu/h) Appendix 561
Table A.4 Continued Pressure or Stress [pascal (Pa)] Atmosphere, standard 1.01325 × 10 5 Dyne/cm 2 0.1 Atmosphere, technical 9.80665 × 10 4 Foot of water (39.2 ◦ F) 2988.98 Bar 10 5 Poundal/ft 2 1.488164 Centimeter of mercury (0 ◦ C) 1333.22 psi (lbf/in. 2 ) 6894.757 Centimeter of water (4 ◦ C) 98.0638 Torr (mm Hg, 0 ◦ C) 133.322 562 Appendix Radiation Units Curie 3.7 × 10 10 becquerel (Bq) Rem 0.01 sievert (Sv) rad 0.01 gray (Gy) Roentgen 2.58 × 10 −4 C/kg Temperature ◦ Celsius T(K) = t( ◦ C) + 273.15 K ◦ Fahrenheit T ◦ (C) =[t( ◦ F) − 32]/1.8 ◦ C ◦ Fahrenheit T(K) =[t ◦ F+459.67]/1.8K ◦ Rankine T(K) = T( ◦ R)/1.8 Velocity (Includes Speed) (m/s) ft/s 0.3048 mi/h (international) 0.44704 in./s 2.54 × 10 −2 rpm (revolutions/min) 0.1047 rad/s Knot (international) 0.51444 Viscosity: (Pa s) Centipose 10 −3 lbf s/in. 2 6894.757 (dynamic viscosity) Centistokes 10 −6 rhe 10 1/(Pa s) (kinematic viscosity) poise 0.1 Slug/(ft s) 47.88026 Poundal s/ft 2 1.488164 Stokes 10 −4 m 2 /s lbs/(ft s) 1.488164 Volume (Includes Capacity) (m 3 ) Acre-foot 1233.489 Gill (U.S.) 1.182941 × 10 −4 Barrel (oil, 42 gal) 0.1589873 in. 3 1.638706 × 10 −5 Bushel (U.S.) 3.5239 × 10 −2 Liter 10 −3
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HANDBOOK OF MODERN SENSORS PHYSICS,
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HANDBOOK OF MODERN SENSORS PHYSICS,
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To the memory of my father
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Preface Seven years have passed sin
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Contents Preface ..................
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Contents XI 4.5 Lenses ............
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Contents XIII 7.7.1 Micropower Impu
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Contents XV 15 Radiation Detectors
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Contents XVII Table A.9 Physical Pr
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1 Data Acquisition “It’s as lar
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1.1 Sensors, Signals, and Systems 3
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1.1 Sensors, Signals, and Systems 5
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1.2 Sensor Classification 7 oscillo
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1.3 Units of Measurements 9 Table 1
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Table 1.7. SI Basic Units Reference
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2 Sensor Characteristics “O, what
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2.2 Span (Full-Scale Input) 15 Fig.
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2.4 Accuracy 17 2.4 Accuracy Avery
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2.6 Calibration Error 19 To compute
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2.8 Nonlinearity 21 Fig. 2.4. Trans
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2.12 Resolution 23 (A) (B) Fig. 2.7
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2.16 Dynamic Characteristics 25 2.1
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2.16 Dynamic Characteristics 27 Sub
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2.17 Environmental Factors 29 2.17
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2.18 Reliability 31 guide. For inst
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2.20 Uncertainty 33 • Thermal sho
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Table 2.2. Uncertainty Budget for T
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3 Physical Principles of Sensing
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3.1 Electric Charges, Fields, and P
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3.2 Capacitance 45 The capacitor ma
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3.2 Capacitance 47 (A) (B) Fig. 3.6
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3.2 Capacitance 49 h 0 (A) (B) Fig.
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3.3 Magnetism 51 N S S N (A) (B) Fi
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3.3 Magnetism 53 electric charge ca
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3.3 Magnetism 55 3.3.3 Toroid Anoth
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3.4 Induction 57 • Changing the o
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3.5 Resistance 59 Fig. 3.16. Voltag
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3.5 Resistance 61 For pure resistan
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3.5 Resistance 63 resistor) and the
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3.5 Resistance 65 Fig. 3.19. Strain
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3.6 Piezoelectric Effect 67 (A) (B)
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3.6 Piezoelectric Effect 69 Another
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3.6 Piezoelectric Effect 71 Another
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3.6 Piezoelectric Effect 73 absorpt
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3.6 Piezoelectric Effect 75 that en
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3.7 Pyroelectric Effect 77 circuit
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3.7 Pyroelectric Effect 79 through
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3.7 Pyroelectric Effect 81 Fig. 3.2
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3.8 Hall Effect 83 Fig. 3.30. Hall
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Table 3.2. Typical Characteristics
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3.9 Seebeck and Peltier Effects 87
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3.10 Sound Waves 93 If we consider
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3.11 Temperature and Thermal Proper
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3.11 Temperature and Thermal Proper
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3.12 Heat Transfer 99 to about 35
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3.12 Heat Transfer 101 (A) (B) Fig.
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3.12 Heat Transfer 103 Fig. 3.41. S
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3.12 Heat Transfer 105 Fig. 3.42. S
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3.12 Heat Transfer 107 Fig. 3.44. W
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3.12 Heat Transfer 109 (A) (B) Fig.
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3.13 Light 111 [38] whose emissivit
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3.14 Dynamic Models of Sensor Eleme
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References 119 specified and three
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References 121 34. Thomson, W. On t
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124 4 Optical Components of Sensors
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150 Optical Components of Sensors 1
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5 Interface Electronic Circuits 5.1
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5.1 Input Characteristics of Interf
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5.1 Input Characteristics of Interf
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5.2 Amplifiers 157 (A) (B) Fig. 5.5
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5.2 Amplifiers 159 Fig. 5.7. Voltag
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5.2 Amplifiers 161 (A) (B) Fig. 5.9
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5.2 Amplifiers 163 Fig. 5.11. An eq
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5.3 Excitation Circuits 165 5.3.1 C
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5.3 Excitation Circuits 167 (A) (B)
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5.3 Excitation Circuits 169 Fig. 5.
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5.3 Excitation Circuits 171 atures.
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5.3 Excitation Circuits 173 (A) (B)
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5.4 Analog-to-Digital Converters 17
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Table 5.2. Binary Bit Weights and R
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5.5 Direct Digitization and Process
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5.5 Direct Digitization and Process
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5.6 Ratiometric Circuits 191 (A) (B
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5.7 Bridge Circuits 193 determine t
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5.7 Bridge Circuits 195 Fig. 5.38.
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5.7 Bridge Circuits 197 Fig. 5.39.
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It can be solved for the temperatur
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5.8 Data Transmission 201 (A) (B) (
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5.8 Data Transmission 203 wire meth
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5.9 Noise in Sensors and Circuits 2
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5.10 Batteries for Low Power Sensor
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References 225 nickel-metal hydrate
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6 Occupancy and Motion Detectors Se
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6.2 Microwave Motion Detectors 229
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6.2 Microwave Motion Detectors 231
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6.3 Capacitive Occupancy Detectors
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6.3 Capacitive Occupancy Detectors
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6.4 Triboelectric Detectors 237 6.4
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6.5 Optoelectronic Motion Detectors
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and the facet pitch is 6.5 Optoelec
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References 251 Fig. 6.17. Calculate
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7 Position, Displacement, and Level
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7.1 Potentiometric Sensors 255 (A)
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7.2 Gravitational Sensors 257 (A) (
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7.3 Capacitive Sensors 259 (A) (B)
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7.3 Capacitive Sensors 261 Fig. 7.7
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7.4 Inductive and Magnetic Sensors
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7.5 Optical Sensors 275 Therefore,
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7.5 Optical Sensors 277 (A) (B) (C)
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7.5 Optical Sensors 279 (A) (B) Fig
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7.5 Optical Sensors 281 Fig. 7.32.
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7.5 Optical Sensors 283 (A) (B) (C)
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7.5 Optical Sensors 285 is proporti
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7.6 Ultrasonic Sensors 287 (A) (B)
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7.7 Radar Sensors 289 (A) (B) Fig.
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7.7 Radar Sensors 291 (A) (B) Fig.
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7.8 Thickness and Level Sensors 293
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References 299 8. Dakin, J. P., Wad
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8 Velocity and Acceleration Acceler
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8.1 Accelerometer Characteristics 3
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8.2 Capacitive Accelerometers 305 a
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8.3 Piezoresistive Accelerometers 3
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8.5 Thermal Accelerometers 309 Fig.
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8.5 Thermal Accelerometers 311 forc
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8.6 Gyroscopes 313 8.6 Gyroscopes N
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8.6 Gyroscopes 315 (A) (B) Fig. 8.1
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8.6 Gyroscopes 317 Products Company
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8.7 Piezoelectric Cables 319 (A) (B
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References 321 (A) (B) Fig. 8.16.Ap
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9 Force, Strain, and Tactile Sensor
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9.1 Strain Gauges 325 (A) (B) Fig.
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9.2 Tactile Sensors 327 9.2 Tactile
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9.2 Tactile Sensors 329 (A) (B) Fig
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9.2 Tactile Sensors 331 Fig. 9.7. P
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9.2 Tactile Sensors 333 Fig. 9.9. T
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9.3 Piezoelectric Force Sensors 335
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References 337 14. Karrer, E. and L
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10 Pressure Sensors “To learn som
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10.3 Mercury Pressure Sensor 341 1
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10.4 Bellows, Membranes, and Thin P
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10.5 Piezoresistive Sensors 345 Fig
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10.5 Piezoresistive Sensors 347 bri
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10.6 Capacitive Sensors 349 (A) (B)
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10.7 VRP Sensors 351 (A) (B) Fig. 1
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10.8 Optoelectronic Sensors 353 Fig
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10.9 Vacuum Sensors 355 (A) (B) Fig
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References 357 (A) (B) (C) Fig. 10.
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11 Flow Sensors It’s a simple tas
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11.2 Pressure Gradient Technique 36
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11.3 Thermal Transport Sensors 363
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11.3 Thermal Transport Sensors 365
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11.4 Ultrasonic Sensors 367 A senso
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11.4 Ultrasonic Sensors 369 Fig. 11
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induced in the liquid. The magnitud
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11.6 Microflow Sensors 373 (A) (B)
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11.7 Breeze Sensor 375 (A) (B) Fig.
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11.9 Drag Force Flow Sensors 377 Wi
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References 379 11. Philip-Chandy, R
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12 Acoustic Sensors “Your ears wi
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12.3 Fiber-Optic Microphone 383 (A)
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12.4 Piezoelectric Microphones 385
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12.5 Electret Microphones 387 Fig.
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12.6 Solid-State Acoustic Detectors
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References 391 References 1. Hohm,
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13 Humidity and Moisture Sensors 13
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13.1 Concept of Humidity 395 Table
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13.2 Capacitive Sensors 397 Fig. 13
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13.3 Electrical Conductivity Sensor
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13.4 Thermal Conductivity Sensor 40
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13.6 Oscillating Hygrometer 403 chi
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References 405 9. Jachowicz, R. S.
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14 Light Detectors “There is noth
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14.1 Introduction 409 Table 14.1. B
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14.2 Photodiodes 411 Maximum revers
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14.2 Photodiodes 413 when i = 0), w
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14.2 Photodiodes 415 (A) (B) (C) Fi
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14.2 Photodiodes 417 Fig. 14.9. Res
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14.3 Phototransistor 419 Fig. 14.12
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14.4 Photoresistors 421 (A) (B) Fig
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14.5 Cooled Detectors 423 (A) (B) F
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14.6 Thermal Detectors 425 Table 14
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14.6 Thermal Detectors 427 Fig. 14.
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Table 14.3. Typical Specifications
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14.6 Thermal Detectors 431 A dual e
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14.6 Thermal Detectors 433 Fig. 14.
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14.6 Thermal Detectors 435 (A) (B)
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14.6 Thermal Detectors 437 Section
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14.7 Gas Flame Detectors 439 P = V
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References 441 housing assures wide
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15 Radiation Detectors Figure 3.41
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15.1 Scintillating Detectors 445 Fi
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15.2 Ionization Detectors 447 emitt
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15.2 Ionization Detectors 449 Fig.
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15.2 Ionization Detectors 451 parti
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15.2 Ionization Detectors 453 There
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References 455 the pure intrinsic t
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16 Temperature Sensors When a scien
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16 Temperature Sensors 459 from whi
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16.1 Thermoresistive Sensors 461 2.
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16.1 Thermoresistive Sensors 463 Ta
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16.1 Thermoresistive Sensors 465 Fi
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16.1 Thermoresistive Sensors 467 pr
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16.1 Thermoresistive Sensors 475 (m
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16.2 Thermoelectric Contact Sensors
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16.3 Semiconductor P-N Junction Sen
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16.4 Optical Temperature Sensors 49
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16.4 Optical Temperature Sensors 49
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16.5 Acoustic Temperature Sensor 49
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References 497 plate—the so-calle
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17 Chemical Sensors 1 Chemical sens
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17.3 Classification of Chemical-Sen
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17.4 Direct Sensors 503 17.4 Direct
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17.4 Direct Sensors 505 voltage e.
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17.4 Direct Sensors 507 This reacti
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17.4 Direct Sensors 509 (A) (B) Fig
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Page 536 and 537: 17.5 Complex Sensors 517 frequency
Page 538 and 539: Table 17.1. SAW Chemical Sensors 17
Page 540 and 541: 17.6 Chemical Sensors Versus Instru
Page 550 and 551: References 531 13. LaCourse, W.R. P
Page 552 and 553: 18 Sensor Materials and Technologie
Page 554 and 555: 18.1 Materials 535 etching is a key
Page 556 and 557: 18.1 Materials 537 Fig. 18.3. The a
Page 558 and 559: 18.1 Materials 539 The following is
Page 560 and 561: 18.1 Materials 541 should be consid
Page 562 and 563: 18.2 Surface Processing 543 sensor
Page 564 and 565: 18.2 Surface Processing 545 On a co
Page 566 and 567: 18.3 Nano-Technology 547 6000-Å la
Page 568 and 569: 18.3 Nano-Technology 549 exposed to
Page 570 and 571: 18.3 Nano-Technology 551 Fig. 18.10
Page 572 and 573: 18.3 Nano-Technology 553 (A) (B) Fi
Page 574 and 575: References 555 Fig. 18.17. Bonding
Page 576 and 577: Appendix Table A.1. Chemical Symbol
Page 578 and 579: Table A.4. SI Conversion Multiples
Page 582 and 583: Table A.4 Continued Cup 2.36588 ×
Page 584 and 585: Appendix 565 Table A.7. Some Materi
Page 586 and 587: Appendix 567 Table A.11. Thermoelec
Page 588 and 589: Table A.14. Mechanical Properties o
Page 590 and 591: Appendix 571 Table A.18. Typical Em
Page 592 and 593: Table A.20. Characteristics of C-Zn
Page 594 and 595: Table A.23 Continued Manufacturer P
Page 596 and 597: Table A.25. Properties of Glasses S
Page 598 and 599: Index α-particles, 443 A/D, 175, 1
Page 600 and 601: Index 581 Coulomb’s law, 40 cross
Page 602 and 603: Index 583 H 2 O, 108 Hall, 82 Hall
Page 604 and 605: Index 585 occupancy sensors, 227 od
Page 606 and 607: Index 587 SAW, 75, 388, 404, 496, 5
Page 608: Index 589 velocity sensor, 302 vert
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