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2.2 Span (Full-Scale Input) 15 Fig. 2.1. Two-dimensional transfer function of a thermal radiation sensor. determined from two input temperatures. It should be noted that a transfer function represents the input-to-output relationship. However, when a sensor is used for measuring or detecting a stimulus, an inversed function (output-to-input) needs to be employed. When a transfer function is linear, the inversed function is very easy to compute. When it is nonlinear the task is more complex, and in many cases, the analytical solution may not lend itself to reasonably simple data processing. In these cases, an approximation technique often is the solution. 2.2 Span (Full-Scale Input) A dynamic range of stimuli which may be converted by a sensor is called a span or an input full scale (FS). It represents the highest possible input value that can be applied to the sensor without causing an unacceptably large inaccuracy. For the sensors with a very broad and nonlinear response characteristic, a dynamic range of the input stimuli is often expressed in decibels, which is a logarithmic measure of ratios of either power or force (voltage). It should be emphasized that decibels do not measure absolute values, but a ratio of values only. A decibel scale represents signal magnitudes by much smaller numbers, which, in many cases, is far more convenient. Being a nonlinear scale, it may represent low-level signals with high resolution while compressing the high-level numbers. In other words, the logarithmic scale for small objects works as a microscope, and for the large objects, it works as a telescope. By
16 2 Sensor Characteristics Table 2.1. Relationship Among Power, Force (Voltage, Current), and Decibels Power ratio 1.023 1.26 10.0 100 10 3 10 4 10 5 10 6 10 7 10 8 10 9 10 10 Force ratio 1.012 1.12 3.16 10.0 31.6 100 316 10 3 3162 10 4 3 × 10 4 10 5 Decibels 0.1 1.0 10.0 20.0 30.0 40.0 50.0 60.0 70.0 80.0 90.0 100.0 definition, decibels are equal to 10 times the log of the ratio of powers (Table 2.1): 1dB= 10 log P 2 P 1 . (2.8) In a similar manner, decibels are equal to 20 times the log of the force, current, or voltage: 1dB= 20 log S 2 S 1 . (2.9) 2.3 Full-Scale Output Full-scale output (FSO) is the algebraic difference between the electrical output signals measured with maximum input stimulus and the lowest input stimulus applied. This must include all deviations from the ideal transfer function. For instance, the FSO output in Fig. 2.2A is represented by S FS . (A) (B) Fig. 2.2. Transfer function (A) and accuracy limits (B). Error is specified in terms of input value.
Page 2 and 3: HANDBOOK OF MODERN SENSORS PHYSICS,
Page 4 and 5: HANDBOOK OF MODERN SENSORS PHYSICS,
Page 6 and 7: To the memory of my father
Page 8 and 9: Preface Seven years have passed sin
Page 10 and 11: Contents Preface ..................
Page 12 and 13: Contents XI 4.5 Lenses ............
Page 14 and 15: Contents XIII 7.7.1 Micropower Impu
Page 16 and 17: Contents XV 15 Radiation Detectors
Page 18 and 19: Contents XVII Table A.9 Physical Pr
Page 20 and 21: 1 Data Acquisition “It’s as lar
Page 22 and 23: 1.1 Sensors, Signals, and Systems 3
Page 24 and 25: 1.1 Sensors, Signals, and Systems 5
Page 26 and 27: 1.2 Sensor Classification 7 oscillo
Page 28 and 29: 1.3 Units of Measurements 9 Table 1
Page 30 and 31: Table 1.7. SI Basic Units Reference
Page 32 and 33: 2 Sensor Characteristics “O, what
Page 36 and 37: 2.4 Accuracy 17 2.4 Accuracy Avery
Page 38 and 39: 2.6 Calibration Error 19 To compute
Page 40 and 41: 2.8 Nonlinearity 21 Fig. 2.4. Trans
Page 42 and 43: 2.12 Resolution 23 (A) (B) Fig. 2.7
Page 44 and 45: 2.16 Dynamic Characteristics 25 2.1
Page 46 and 47: 2.16 Dynamic Characteristics 27 Sub
Page 48 and 49: 2.17 Environmental Factors 29 2.17
Page 50 and 51: 2.18 Reliability 31 guide. For inst
Page 52 and 53: 2.20 Uncertainty 33 • Thermal sho
Page 54 and 55: Table 2.2. Uncertainty Budget for T
Page 56 and 57: 3 Physical Principles of Sensing
Page 58 and 59: 3.1 Electric Charges, Fields, and P
Page 64 and 65: 3.2 Capacitance 45 The capacitor ma
Page 66 and 67: 3.2 Capacitance 47 (A) (B) Fig. 3.6
Page 68 and 69: 3.2 Capacitance 49 h 0 (A) (B) Fig.
Page 70 and 71: 3.3 Magnetism 51 N S S N (A) (B) Fi
Page 72 and 73: 3.3 Magnetism 53 electric charge ca
Page 74 and 75: 3.3 Magnetism 55 3.3.3 Toroid Anoth
Page 76 and 77: 3.4 Induction 57 • Changing the o
Page 78 and 79: 3.5 Resistance 59 Fig. 3.16. Voltag
Page 80 and 81: 3.5 Resistance 61 For pure resistan
Page 82 and 83: 3.5 Resistance 63 resistor) and the
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3.5 Resistance 65 Fig. 3.19. Strain
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3.6 Piezoelectric Effect 67 (A) (B)
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3.6 Piezoelectric Effect 69 Another
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3.6 Piezoelectric Effect 71 Another
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3.6 Piezoelectric Effect 73 absorpt
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3.6 Piezoelectric Effect 75 that en
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3.7 Pyroelectric Effect 77 circuit
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3.7 Pyroelectric Effect 79 through
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3.7 Pyroelectric Effect 81 Fig. 3.2
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3.8 Hall Effect 83 Fig. 3.30. Hall
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Table 3.2. Typical Characteristics
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3.9 Seebeck and Peltier Effects 87
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3.10 Sound Waves 93 If we consider
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3.11 Temperature and Thermal Proper
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3.11 Temperature and Thermal Proper
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3.12 Heat Transfer 99 to about 35
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3.12 Heat Transfer 101 (A) (B) Fig.
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3.12 Heat Transfer 103 Fig. 3.41. S
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3.12 Heat Transfer 105 Fig. 3.42. S
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3.12 Heat Transfer 107 Fig. 3.44. W
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3.12 Heat Transfer 109 (A) (B) Fig.
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3.13 Light 111 [38] whose emissivit
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3.14 Dynamic Models of Sensor Eleme
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References 119 specified and three
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References 121 34. Thomson, W. On t
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124 4 Optical Components of Sensors
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150 Optical Components of Sensors 1
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5 Interface Electronic Circuits 5.1
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5.1 Input Characteristics of Interf
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5.1 Input Characteristics of Interf
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5.2 Amplifiers 157 (A) (B) Fig. 5.5
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5.2 Amplifiers 159 Fig. 5.7. Voltag
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5.2 Amplifiers 161 (A) (B) Fig. 5.9
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5.2 Amplifiers 163 Fig. 5.11. An eq
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5.3 Excitation Circuits 165 5.3.1 C
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5.3 Excitation Circuits 167 (A) (B)
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5.3 Excitation Circuits 169 Fig. 5.
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5.3 Excitation Circuits 171 atures.
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5.3 Excitation Circuits 173 (A) (B)
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5.4 Analog-to-Digital Converters 17
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Table 5.2. Binary Bit Weights and R
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5.5 Direct Digitization and Process
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5.5 Direct Digitization and Process
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5.6 Ratiometric Circuits 191 (A) (B
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5.7 Bridge Circuits 193 determine t
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5.7 Bridge Circuits 195 Fig. 5.38.
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5.7 Bridge Circuits 197 Fig. 5.39.
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It can be solved for the temperatur
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5.8 Data Transmission 201 (A) (B) (
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5.8 Data Transmission 203 wire meth
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5.9 Noise in Sensors and Circuits 2
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5.10 Batteries for Low Power Sensor
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References 225 nickel-metal hydrate
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6 Occupancy and Motion Detectors Se
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6.2 Microwave Motion Detectors 229
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6.2 Microwave Motion Detectors 231
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6.3 Capacitive Occupancy Detectors
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6.3 Capacitive Occupancy Detectors
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6.4 Triboelectric Detectors 237 6.4
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6.5 Optoelectronic Motion Detectors
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and the facet pitch is 6.5 Optoelec
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References 251 Fig. 6.17. Calculate
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7 Position, Displacement, and Level
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7.1 Potentiometric Sensors 255 (A)
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7.2 Gravitational Sensors 257 (A) (
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7.3 Capacitive Sensors 259 (A) (B)
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7.3 Capacitive Sensors 261 Fig. 7.7
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7.4 Inductive and Magnetic Sensors
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7.5 Optical Sensors 275 Therefore,
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7.5 Optical Sensors 277 (A) (B) (C)
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7.5 Optical Sensors 279 (A) (B) Fig
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7.5 Optical Sensors 281 Fig. 7.32.
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7.5 Optical Sensors 283 (A) (B) (C)
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7.5 Optical Sensors 285 is proporti
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7.6 Ultrasonic Sensors 287 (A) (B)
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7.7 Radar Sensors 289 (A) (B) Fig.
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7.7 Radar Sensors 291 (A) (B) Fig.
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7.8 Thickness and Level Sensors 293
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References 299 8. Dakin, J. P., Wad
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8 Velocity and Acceleration Acceler
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8.1 Accelerometer Characteristics 3
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8.2 Capacitive Accelerometers 305 a
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8.3 Piezoresistive Accelerometers 3
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8.5 Thermal Accelerometers 309 Fig.
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8.5 Thermal Accelerometers 311 forc
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8.6 Gyroscopes 313 8.6 Gyroscopes N
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8.6 Gyroscopes 315 (A) (B) Fig. 8.1
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8.6 Gyroscopes 317 Products Company
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8.7 Piezoelectric Cables 319 (A) (B
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References 321 (A) (B) Fig. 8.16.Ap
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9 Force, Strain, and Tactile Sensor
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9.1 Strain Gauges 325 (A) (B) Fig.
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9.2 Tactile Sensors 327 9.2 Tactile
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9.2 Tactile Sensors 329 (A) (B) Fig
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9.2 Tactile Sensors 331 Fig. 9.7. P
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9.2 Tactile Sensors 333 Fig. 9.9. T
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9.3 Piezoelectric Force Sensors 335
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References 337 14. Karrer, E. and L
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10 Pressure Sensors “To learn som
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10.3 Mercury Pressure Sensor 341 1
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10.4 Bellows, Membranes, and Thin P
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10.5 Piezoresistive Sensors 345 Fig
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10.5 Piezoresistive Sensors 347 bri
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10.6 Capacitive Sensors 349 (A) (B)
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10.7 VRP Sensors 351 (A) (B) Fig. 1
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10.8 Optoelectronic Sensors 353 Fig
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10.9 Vacuum Sensors 355 (A) (B) Fig
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References 357 (A) (B) (C) Fig. 10.
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11 Flow Sensors It’s a simple tas
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11.2 Pressure Gradient Technique 36
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11.3 Thermal Transport Sensors 363
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11.3 Thermal Transport Sensors 365
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11.4 Ultrasonic Sensors 367 A senso
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11.4 Ultrasonic Sensors 369 Fig. 11
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induced in the liquid. The magnitud
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11.6 Microflow Sensors 373 (A) (B)
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11.7 Breeze Sensor 375 (A) (B) Fig.
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11.9 Drag Force Flow Sensors 377 Wi
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References 379 11. Philip-Chandy, R
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12 Acoustic Sensors “Your ears wi
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12.3 Fiber-Optic Microphone 383 (A)
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12.4 Piezoelectric Microphones 385
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12.5 Electret Microphones 387 Fig.
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12.6 Solid-State Acoustic Detectors
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References 391 References 1. Hohm,
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13 Humidity and Moisture Sensors 13
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13.1 Concept of Humidity 395 Table
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13.2 Capacitive Sensors 397 Fig. 13
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13.3 Electrical Conductivity Sensor
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13.4 Thermal Conductivity Sensor 40
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13.6 Oscillating Hygrometer 403 chi
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References 405 9. Jachowicz, R. S.
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14 Light Detectors “There is noth
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14.1 Introduction 409 Table 14.1. B
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14.2 Photodiodes 411 Maximum revers
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14.2 Photodiodes 413 when i = 0), w
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14.2 Photodiodes 415 (A) (B) (C) Fi
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14.2 Photodiodes 417 Fig. 14.9. Res
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14.3 Phototransistor 419 Fig. 14.12
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14.4 Photoresistors 421 (A) (B) Fig
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14.5 Cooled Detectors 423 (A) (B) F
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14.6 Thermal Detectors 425 Table 14
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14.6 Thermal Detectors 427 Fig. 14.
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Table 14.3. Typical Specifications
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14.6 Thermal Detectors 431 A dual e
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14.6 Thermal Detectors 433 Fig. 14.
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14.6 Thermal Detectors 435 (A) (B)
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14.6 Thermal Detectors 437 Section
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14.7 Gas Flame Detectors 439 P = V
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References 441 housing assures wide
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15 Radiation Detectors Figure 3.41
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15.1 Scintillating Detectors 445 Fi
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15.2 Ionization Detectors 447 emitt
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15.2 Ionization Detectors 449 Fig.
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15.2 Ionization Detectors 451 parti
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15.2 Ionization Detectors 453 There
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References 455 the pure intrinsic t
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16 Temperature Sensors When a scien
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16 Temperature Sensors 459 from whi
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16.1 Thermoresistive Sensors 461 2.
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16.1 Thermoresistive Sensors 463 Ta
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16.1 Thermoresistive Sensors 465 Fi
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16.1 Thermoresistive Sensors 467 pr
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16.1 Thermoresistive Sensors 475 (m
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16.2 Thermoelectric Contact Sensors
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16.3 Semiconductor P-N Junction Sen
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16.4 Optical Temperature Sensors 49
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16.4 Optical Temperature Sensors 49
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16.5 Acoustic Temperature Sensor 49
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References 497 plate—the so-calle
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17 Chemical Sensors 1 Chemical sens
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17.3 Classification of Chemical-Sen
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17.4 Direct Sensors 503 17.4 Direct
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17.4 Direct Sensors 505 voltage e.
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17.4 Direct Sensors 507 This reacti
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17.4 Direct Sensors 509 (A) (B) Fig
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17.4 Direct Sensors 511 µm thick a
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17.5 Complex Sensors 513 Fig. 17.11
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17.5 Complex Sensors 515 Fig. 17.12
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17.5 Complex Sensors 517 frequency
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Table 17.1. SAW Chemical Sensors 17
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17.6 Chemical Sensors Versus Instru
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References 531 13. LaCourse, W.R. P
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18 Sensor Materials and Technologie
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18.1 Materials 535 etching is a key
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18.1 Materials 537 Fig. 18.3. The a
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18.1 Materials 539 The following is
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18.1 Materials 541 should be consid
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18.2 Surface Processing 543 sensor
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18.2 Surface Processing 545 On a co
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18.3 Nano-Technology 547 6000-Å la
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18.3 Nano-Technology 549 exposed to
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18.3 Nano-Technology 551 Fig. 18.10
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18.3 Nano-Technology 553 (A) (B) Fi
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References 555 Fig. 18.17. Bonding
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Appendix Table A.1. Chemical Symbol
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Table A.4. SI Conversion Multiples
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Table A.4 Continued Light cd/in. 2
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Table A.4 Continued Cup 2.36588 ×
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Appendix 565 Table A.7. Some Materi
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Appendix 567 Table A.11. Thermoelec
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Table A.14. Mechanical Properties o
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Appendix 571 Table A.18. Typical Em
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Table A.20. Characteristics of C-Zn
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Table A.23 Continued Manufacturer P
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Table A.25. Properties of Glasses S
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Index α-particles, 443 A/D, 175, 1
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Index 581 Coulomb’s law, 40 cross
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Index 583 H 2 O, 108 Hall, 82 Hall
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Index 585 occupancy sensors, 227 od
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Index 587 SAW, 75, 388, 404, 496, 5
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Index 589 velocity sensor, 302 vert
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