handbook of modern sensors

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Index 587 SAW, 75, 388, 404, 496, 501, 517 scale, 95 Schmitt trigger, 267 Schottky noise, 206 scintillation counters, 444 secondary cells, 224 second-order response, 114 security alarms, 231 security system, 234 Seebeck, 86, 484 Seebeck coefficient, 87 Seebeck effect, 3, 221, 534 Seebeck potential, 88, 483 selectivity, 500, 524 self-heating, 467, 474 self-heating error, 30 self-heating sensor, 366 self-induction, 57 semiconductor, 408, 421, 484 semiconductor detectors, 451 semiconductor diode, 452 sensitivity, 14, 25, 194, 304, 312, 387, 422, 500, 524 SFB, 347 shield, 235, 260 shielding, 212 signal conditioning, 151 signal-to-noise ratio, 156 signatures, 527 silicate, 543 silicon, 39, 85, 197, 284, 306, 317, 344, 349, 353, 398, 464, 489, 504, 517, 533 silicon bonding, 549 silicon diaphragms, 550 silicon diode, 170, 452 silicon dioxide, 549 silicon micromachining, 547 silicon nitride, 549 silicon plate, 517 silicon sensor, 464 silicon wafer, 548, 550, 554 silicone, 102, 494 silicone oil, 304 silkscreen, 327 silver, 70, 542 SiO 2 , 413 skin, 112 smart chemical sensors, 530 Snell, 125 Snell’s law, 125, 141 SnO 2 , 503 solder, 221 solenoid, 54 solid-state detectors, 455 sound waves, 92 span errors, 199 species, 499 specific heat, 82, 98 specific resistivity, 61, 409 spectroscopy, 449 spectrum, 112, 213 speed, 301 speed response, 26 spherical mirrors, 136 spin-casting, 544 spinning-rotor gauge, 356 sputtering, 545, 546 square-wave oscillator, 171 statistical methods, 523 Stefan–Boltzmann constant, 105, 249, 372 Stefan–Boltzmann law, 14, 105, 244, 249, 372, 429, 437 Steinhart and Hart model, 470 stimulus, 2, 153, 190, 202, 209 storage, 29 straight line, 18 strain, 13, 65, 326, 342, 377 strain gauge, 143, 324, 325, 332 stress, 343 stress detectors, 227 string, 92 substrate, 517 successive-approximation technique, 175 supervised classification, 523 switched-capacitor, 187 synchronous detector, 263 systematic error, 524 systematic inaccuracy, 17 tactile sensor, 327 target species, 500 TCR, 199, 479 Teflon, 155, 388, 509 temperature, 30, 47, 60, 75, 77, 88, 94, 129, 169, 195, 206, 219, 244, 310, 335, 355, 363, 398, 425, 435, 457, 476, 525 temperature coefficient, 159, 280 temperature compensation, 196
588 Index temperature correction, 49 temperature differential, 367 temperature gradient, 117 temperature profile, 101 temperature sensitivity, 536 temperature sensor, 19, 49, 312, 403, 460, 490 TGS, 80 thermal accelerometer, 309 thermal capacitance, 26, 81, 98 thermal conductivity, 100, 355, 401, 460 thermal coupling, 436 thermal expansion, 96 thermal feedback, 481 thermal flux, 106, 438 thermal grease, 481 thermal mass, 427 thermal radiation, 14, 78, 144, 244, 426, 434 thermal resistance, 81, 117, 458 thermal shock, 33 thermal time constant, 435 thermistor, 5, 35, 62, 401, 435, 465, 513 thermoanemometer, 363 thermochromic solution, 494 thermocouple, 7, 89, 311, 427, 481 thermocouple amplifier, 485 thermocouple assemblies, 486 thermocouple loop, 482 thermodynamics, 513 thermoelectric, 438 thermoelectric coefficients, 429 thermoelectric coolers, 423 thermoelectric law, 482 thermoelectric voltage, 484 thermoelectricity, 87 thermometer, 109, 403, 468 thermopile, 89, 311, 427, 484 thermoplastic, 538 thermostat, 257, 480 thermowell, 486 thick films, 465 thick oxide, 552 thickness, 293 thin film, 487, 517, 554 thin plate, 344 thin-film material, 544 Thompson, 86 Thomson heating, 91 threshold, 186 threshold circuits, 240 threshold device, 171 tilt sensor, 257 time constant, 26, 81, 118, 460, 476, 492 TiO 2 ,511 titanium, 63 toroid, 55 torque, 43, 313 Torricelli, 339 total internal reflection, 141 transceiver, 229 transducer, 3 transfer function, 13, 17, 19, 29, 210, 525 transistor, 418, 488 transition temperature, 478 transmission, 148 transmittance, 128, 133 transmitted noise, 208, 211, 228 triboelectric detectors, 237 triboelectric effect, 38 true value, 13 tube, 144 tube of flow, 359 tungsten, 62, 542 two-wire transmitter, 202 two-point calibration, 19 U.S. Customary System, 9 ultrasonic, 274, 367, 385 ultrasonic crystal, 496 ultrasonic waves, 287, 496 ultraviolet (UV), 111, 439, 492, 511, 543, 548 uncertainty, 18, 33 unsupervised classification, 523 V/F, 176, 177 vacuum, 46, 111, 135, 146, 314, 333, 354, 400 vacuum chamber, 544, 545 vacuum deposition, 545 vacuum sensor, 356 vacuum tube, 356 valence band, 409, 421 VCR, 433 vector, 53, 82 vehicle, 301 velocity, 301, 359, 362, 368 velocity of light, 111
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HANDBOOK OF MODERN SENSORS PHYSICS,
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HANDBOOK OF MODERN SENSORS PHYSICS,
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To the memory of my father
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Preface Seven years have passed sin
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Contents Preface ..................
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Contents XI 4.5 Lenses ............
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Contents XIII 7.7.1 Micropower Impu
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Contents XV 15 Radiation Detectors
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Contents XVII Table A.9 Physical Pr
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1 Data Acquisition “It’s as lar
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1.1 Sensors, Signals, and Systems 3
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1.1 Sensors, Signals, and Systems 5
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1.2 Sensor Classification 7 oscillo
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1.3 Units of Measurements 9 Table 1
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Table 1.7. SI Basic Units Reference
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2 Sensor Characteristics “O, what
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2.2 Span (Full-Scale Input) 15 Fig.
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2.4 Accuracy 17 2.4 Accuracy Avery
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2.6 Calibration Error 19 To compute
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2.8 Nonlinearity 21 Fig. 2.4. Trans
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2.12 Resolution 23 (A) (B) Fig. 2.7
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2.16 Dynamic Characteristics 25 2.1
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2.16 Dynamic Characteristics 27 Sub
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2.17 Environmental Factors 29 2.17
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2.18 Reliability 31 guide. For inst
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2.20 Uncertainty 33 • Thermal sho
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Table 2.2. Uncertainty Budget for T
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3 Physical Principles of Sensing
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3.1 Electric Charges, Fields, and P
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3.2 Capacitance 45 The capacitor ma
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3.2 Capacitance 47 (A) (B) Fig. 3.6
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3.2 Capacitance 49 h 0 (A) (B) Fig.
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3.3 Magnetism 51 N S S N (A) (B) Fi
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3.3 Magnetism 53 electric charge ca
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3.3 Magnetism 55 3.3.3 Toroid Anoth
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3.4 Induction 57 • Changing the o
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3.5 Resistance 59 Fig. 3.16. Voltag
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3.5 Resistance 61 For pure resistan
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3.5 Resistance 63 resistor) and the
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3.5 Resistance 65 Fig. 3.19. Strain
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3.6 Piezoelectric Effect 67 (A) (B)
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3.6 Piezoelectric Effect 69 Another
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3.6 Piezoelectric Effect 71 Another
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3.6 Piezoelectric Effect 73 absorpt
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3.6 Piezoelectric Effect 75 that en
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3.7 Pyroelectric Effect 77 circuit
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3.7 Pyroelectric Effect 79 through
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3.7 Pyroelectric Effect 81 Fig. 3.2
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3.8 Hall Effect 83 Fig. 3.30. Hall
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Table 3.2. Typical Characteristics
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3.9 Seebeck and Peltier Effects 87
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3.10 Sound Waves 93 If we consider
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3.11 Temperature and Thermal Proper
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3.11 Temperature and Thermal Proper
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3.12 Heat Transfer 99 to about 35
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3.12 Heat Transfer 101 (A) (B) Fig.
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3.12 Heat Transfer 103 Fig. 3.41. S
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3.12 Heat Transfer 105 Fig. 3.42. S
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3.12 Heat Transfer 107 Fig. 3.44. W
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3.12 Heat Transfer 109 (A) (B) Fig.
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3.13 Light 111 [38] whose emissivit
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3.14 Dynamic Models of Sensor Eleme
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References 119 specified and three
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References 121 34. Thomson, W. On t
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124 4 Optical Components of Sensors
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150 Optical Components of Sensors 1
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5 Interface Electronic Circuits 5.1
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5.1 Input Characteristics of Interf
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5.1 Input Characteristics of Interf
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5.2 Amplifiers 157 (A) (B) Fig. 5.5
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5.2 Amplifiers 159 Fig. 5.7. Voltag
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5.2 Amplifiers 161 (A) (B) Fig. 5.9
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5.2 Amplifiers 163 Fig. 5.11. An eq
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5.3 Excitation Circuits 165 5.3.1 C
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5.3 Excitation Circuits 167 (A) (B)
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5.3 Excitation Circuits 169 Fig. 5.
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5.3 Excitation Circuits 171 atures.
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5.3 Excitation Circuits 173 (A) (B)
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5.4 Analog-to-Digital Converters 17
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Table 5.2. Binary Bit Weights and R
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5.5 Direct Digitization and Process
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5.5 Direct Digitization and Process
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5.6 Ratiometric Circuits 191 (A) (B
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5.7 Bridge Circuits 193 determine t
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5.7 Bridge Circuits 195 Fig. 5.38.
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5.7 Bridge Circuits 197 Fig. 5.39.
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It can be solved for the temperatur
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5.8 Data Transmission 201 (A) (B) (
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5.8 Data Transmission 203 wire meth
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5.9 Noise in Sensors and Circuits 2
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5.10 Batteries for Low Power Sensor
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References 225 nickel-metal hydrate
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6 Occupancy and Motion Detectors Se
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6.2 Microwave Motion Detectors 229
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6.2 Microwave Motion Detectors 231
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6.3 Capacitive Occupancy Detectors
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6.3 Capacitive Occupancy Detectors
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6.4 Triboelectric Detectors 237 6.4
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6.5 Optoelectronic Motion Detectors
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and the facet pitch is 6.5 Optoelec
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References 251 Fig. 6.17. Calculate
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7 Position, Displacement, and Level
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7.1 Potentiometric Sensors 255 (A)
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7.2 Gravitational Sensors 257 (A) (
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7.3 Capacitive Sensors 259 (A) (B)
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7.3 Capacitive Sensors 261 Fig. 7.7
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7.4 Inductive and Magnetic Sensors
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7.5 Optical Sensors 275 Therefore,
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7.5 Optical Sensors 277 (A) (B) (C)
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7.5 Optical Sensors 279 (A) (B) Fig
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7.5 Optical Sensors 281 Fig. 7.32.
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7.5 Optical Sensors 283 (A) (B) (C)
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7.5 Optical Sensors 285 is proporti
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7.6 Ultrasonic Sensors 287 (A) (B)
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7.7 Radar Sensors 289 (A) (B) Fig.
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7.7 Radar Sensors 291 (A) (B) Fig.
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7.8 Thickness and Level Sensors 293
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References 299 8. Dakin, J. P., Wad
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8 Velocity and Acceleration Acceler
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8.1 Accelerometer Characteristics 3
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8.2 Capacitive Accelerometers 305 a
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8.3 Piezoresistive Accelerometers 3
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8.5 Thermal Accelerometers 309 Fig.
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8.5 Thermal Accelerometers 311 forc
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8.6 Gyroscopes 313 8.6 Gyroscopes N
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8.6 Gyroscopes 315 (A) (B) Fig. 8.1
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8.6 Gyroscopes 317 Products Company
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8.7 Piezoelectric Cables 319 (A) (B
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References 321 (A) (B) Fig. 8.16.Ap
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9 Force, Strain, and Tactile Sensor
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9.1 Strain Gauges 325 (A) (B) Fig.
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9.2 Tactile Sensors 327 9.2 Tactile
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9.2 Tactile Sensors 329 (A) (B) Fig
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9.2 Tactile Sensors 331 Fig. 9.7. P
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9.2 Tactile Sensors 333 Fig. 9.9. T
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9.3 Piezoelectric Force Sensors 335
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References 337 14. Karrer, E. and L
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10 Pressure Sensors “To learn som
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10.3 Mercury Pressure Sensor 341 1
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10.4 Bellows, Membranes, and Thin P
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10.5 Piezoresistive Sensors 345 Fig
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10.5 Piezoresistive Sensors 347 bri
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10.6 Capacitive Sensors 349 (A) (B)
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10.7 VRP Sensors 351 (A) (B) Fig. 1
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10.8 Optoelectronic Sensors 353 Fig
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10.9 Vacuum Sensors 355 (A) (B) Fig
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References 357 (A) (B) (C) Fig. 10.
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11 Flow Sensors It’s a simple tas
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11.2 Pressure Gradient Technique 36
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11.3 Thermal Transport Sensors 363
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11.3 Thermal Transport Sensors 365
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11.4 Ultrasonic Sensors 367 A senso
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11.4 Ultrasonic Sensors 369 Fig. 11
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induced in the liquid. The magnitud
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11.6 Microflow Sensors 373 (A) (B)
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11.7 Breeze Sensor 375 (A) (B) Fig.
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11.9 Drag Force Flow Sensors 377 Wi
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References 379 11. Philip-Chandy, R
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12 Acoustic Sensors “Your ears wi
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12.3 Fiber-Optic Microphone 383 (A)
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12.4 Piezoelectric Microphones 385
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12.5 Electret Microphones 387 Fig.
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12.6 Solid-State Acoustic Detectors
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References 391 References 1. Hohm,
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13 Humidity and Moisture Sensors 13
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13.1 Concept of Humidity 395 Table
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13.2 Capacitive Sensors 397 Fig. 13
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13.3 Electrical Conductivity Sensor
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13.4 Thermal Conductivity Sensor 40
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13.6 Oscillating Hygrometer 403 chi
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References 405 9. Jachowicz, R. S.
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14 Light Detectors “There is noth
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14.1 Introduction 409 Table 14.1. B
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14.2 Photodiodes 411 Maximum revers
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14.2 Photodiodes 413 when i = 0), w
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14.2 Photodiodes 415 (A) (B) (C) Fi
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14.2 Photodiodes 417 Fig. 14.9. Res
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14.3 Phototransistor 419 Fig. 14.12
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14.4 Photoresistors 421 (A) (B) Fig
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14.5 Cooled Detectors 423 (A) (B) F
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14.6 Thermal Detectors 425 Table 14
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14.6 Thermal Detectors 427 Fig. 14.
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Table 14.3. Typical Specifications
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14.6 Thermal Detectors 431 A dual e
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14.6 Thermal Detectors 433 Fig. 14.
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14.6 Thermal Detectors 435 (A) (B)
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14.6 Thermal Detectors 437 Section
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14.7 Gas Flame Detectors 439 P = V
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References 441 housing assures wide
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15 Radiation Detectors Figure 3.41
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15.1 Scintillating Detectors 445 Fi
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15.2 Ionization Detectors 447 emitt
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15.2 Ionization Detectors 449 Fig.
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15.2 Ionization Detectors 451 parti
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15.2 Ionization Detectors 453 There
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References 455 the pure intrinsic t
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16 Temperature Sensors When a scien
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16 Temperature Sensors 459 from whi
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16.1 Thermoresistive Sensors 461 2.
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16.1 Thermoresistive Sensors 463 Ta
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16.1 Thermoresistive Sensors 465 Fi
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16.1 Thermoresistive Sensors 467 pr
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16.1 Thermoresistive Sensors 475 (m
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16.2 Thermoelectric Contact Sensors
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16.3 Semiconductor P-N Junction Sen
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16.4 Optical Temperature Sensors 49
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16.4 Optical Temperature Sensors 49
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16.5 Acoustic Temperature Sensor 49
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References 497 plate—the so-calle
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17 Chemical Sensors 1 Chemical sens
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17.3 Classification of Chemical-Sen
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17.4 Direct Sensors 503 17.4 Direct
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17.4 Direct Sensors 505 voltage e.
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17.4 Direct Sensors 507 This reacti
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17.4 Direct Sensors 509 (A) (B) Fig
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17.4 Direct Sensors 511 µm thick a
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17.5 Complex Sensors 513 Fig. 17.11
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17.5 Complex Sensors 515 Fig. 17.12
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17.5 Complex Sensors 517 frequency
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Table 17.1. SAW Chemical Sensors 17
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17.6 Chemical Sensors Versus Instru
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References 531 13. LaCourse, W.R. P
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18 Sensor Materials and Technologie
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18.1 Materials 535 etching is a key
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Page 562 and 563: 18.2 Surface Processing 543 sensor
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Page 566 and 567: 18.3 Nano-Technology 547 6000-Å la
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Page 574 and 575: References 555 Fig. 18.17. Bonding
Page 576 and 577: Appendix Table A.1. Chemical Symbol
Page 578 and 579: Table A.4. SI Conversion Multiples
Page 580 and 581: Table A.4 Continued Light cd/in. 2
Page 582 and 583: Table A.4 Continued Cup 2.36588 ×
Page 584 and 585: Appendix 565 Table A.7. Some Materi
Page 586 and 587: Appendix 567 Table A.11. Thermoelec
Page 588 and 589: Table A.14. Mechanical Properties o
Page 590 and 591: Appendix 571 Table A.18. Typical Em
Page 592 and 593: Table A.20. Characteristics of C-Zn
Page 594 and 595: Table A.23 Continued Manufacturer P
Page 596 and 597: Table A.25. Properties of Glasses S
Page 598 and 599: Index α-particles, 443 A/D, 175, 1
Page 600 and 601: Index 581 Coulomb’s law, 40 cross
Page 602 and 603: Index 583 H 2 O, 108 Hall, 82 Hall
Page 604 and 605: Index 585 occupancy sensors, 227 od
Page 608: Index 589 velocity sensor, 302 vert
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