Private Academies of Chinese Learning in Meiji Japan: The Decline ...

200 PRIVATE ACADEMIES OF CHINESE LEARNING IN MEIJI JAPANHakutei (1882–1958). After graduating from higher elementaryschool in 1894, he studied mathematics and English inpreparation for the entrance examinations into middle school.For English, he attended a juku near his school from 7.30 a.m. andfor mathematics he went to the home of a teacher after school, at4.30 p.m. 82 This change was a result of direct intervention fromthe authorities in the running of juku and of the socialtransformations which meant that a juku education was notsufficient for success.When did this change take place? There is no clear answer tothe question. On the one hand, there is mention of studyingkangaku at a teacher’s home out of school hours as late as theearly twentieth century. From his second year at the First HighSchool until his graduation from university, Nagasawa Kikuya(1902–80; bibliographer, professor) was among the private pupilsof Yasui Bokudō, spending most Sundays at his home. 83 Eventoday not all juku attendance is specifically aimed at preparingfor an entrance examination. On the other hand, althoughpreparing for examinations appears to become the most commonfunction of a juku from around 1900, people were studying atjuku, including kangaku juku, while preparing for examinationswell before then. While the Education Law established the linkbetween education and worldy success, entry into the highestinstitutions of learning required academic attainments that couldnot be acquired in the lower level public schools. As a result, asearly as the 1870s, juku functioned as preparatory schools to fillthis gap in provision.For example, Hiroike Chikurō (1866–1938), who graduatedfrom a middle level school in Nakatsu, attended a juku between1883 and 1885 to prepare for the entrance examination of theteacher training school. After failing the examination for thesecond time he eventually passed the teacher qualifyingexamination, which was equivalent to graduation from theschool. 84 For youths coming to Tokyo from the provinces, whereeducational provision beyond elementary level was lacking,study at a juku was often a temporary measure until they couldgain entrance into a more formal school. Nishō gakusha and OkaSenjin’s juku were mainly attended by people preparing forentrance examinations in the 1880s.Still, a shift definitely occurred in the role of the juku from anunofficial (and barely tolerated) part of educational provision,