Private Academies of Chinese Learning in Meiji Japan: The Decline ...

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EDUCATION IN TRANSITION FROM THE TOKUGAWA TO THE MEIJI PERIOD 15juku, prospective students generally needed an introduction fromsomeone who would also act as their guarantor. 15 This could be ascholar they were already studying with. In this way juku werelinked together by personal ties, and the scholars in one branchof study formed a nationwide network.The increase of yūgaku in the last years of the TokugawaShogunate is one indication of how much society was in a stateof flux. The increase in the number of schools, including schoolsfor commoners, is another. The development and increasingcomplexity of the government bureaucracy and the expansion ofcommerce and industry resulted in a greater need for educatedpeople. 16 For the increasing number of samurai who were unableto find a job in the overstaffed bureaucracies of their domains,opening a juku represented one of the few alternativeoccupations.The increase in schools was also an indication of socialdisintegration. The class system was weakened as economic andpolitical power no longer corresponded to each other andachievement gained importance beside rank as a means tosuccess. The samurai class had initially had a virtual monopolyon education, which they were now losing. While the authoritiespromoted education for achievement to a limited extent, theyalso saw education as an antidote to social disorder. Education bythe mid nineteenth century was the object of conflictingexpectations. 17 Moreover, itwas widespread and diverse, cateringto different demands and reflecting the lack of politicalcentralization.THE EDUCATION POLICIES OF THE MEIJIGOVERNMENTThe Meiji Restoration and the ensuing political centralizationprovided the necessary conditions for organizing education on anational scale. The leaders of the Meiji Restoration introducedreforms in all areas, and education was high on their agenda. 18The Five PointCharter, issued in April 1868, stated that knowledgewas to be sought from all over the world. The earliest governmentmeasures concentrated on higher education. The first stateschools were established in Kyoto in 1868. In the summer of1868, following the transfer of the capital to Tokyo, the formerbakufu schools of medicine (Igakusho), Western studies (Kaiseijo)and neo-Confucian studies (Shōheikō) were reopened. 19 A few
16 PRIVATE ACADEMIES OF CHINESE LEARNING IN MEIJI JAPANmonths later, the Shōheikō was placed under the jurisdiction ofthe Executive Council (gyōseikan) in the Council of State. TheShōhei gakkō or gakkō was not only a school, but also anadministrative office responsible for the entire education system.In the summer of 1869 it was renamed daigakkō (university) andthe schools of medicine and Western studies were placed underits jurisdiction, while the university (daigakkō) received the statusof a ministry of education. When the school was closed thefollowing year and most of the teaching staff dismissed, theuniversity retained its administrative functions until the Ministryof Education was established in 1871. The schools of medicineand Western studies became independent again until they weremerged in 1877 to form the core of Tokyo University. The closurewas a result of conflicts between scholars of kokugaku (NationalLearning) and kangaku, who competed for influence in the neweducation system and for political power, and of tensionsbetween teaching staff and students. 20Initial plans to introduce a comprehensive education systemwere made around 1870, and in 1871 attempts to reform theeducation system began in earnest. Meanwhile, traditionalpatterns of schooling persisted. The domain schools continued toplay a central role in the education of samurai, and feudal lordssponsored yūgaku (travelling for study), with Tokyo as the mostimportant destination. 21 In 1871 the Meiji government abolishedthe domains which had retained much of their independence inthe years immediately following the Meiji Restoration. Thedomains were replaced by a system of prefectures. Jurisdictionover the entire country and its populace, control of the revenuesof the former domains and control over their military powerwere thus consolidated in the hands of the central government.Following the introduction of the prefectural system, the Councilof State (dajōkan) was reorganized. A Ministry of Education wasestablished, and plans were made to introduce a centralizededucation system. In some prefectures (Kyōto, Shizuoka, Aichi)the authorities had already developed ambitious educationprogrammes. 22The abolition of the domains formally spelt the end of thedomain schools and of yūgaku sponsored by the domains.However, many schools were reopened as private schools bymembers of the local elite, often with the support of the formerfeudal lord. Equally, sponsorship of yūgaku continued in somecases. Thus the domain school, in the form of its private
Page 2 and 3: PRIVATE ACADEMIES OF CHINESELEARNIN
Page 4 and 5: iii90. Olof G.Lidin: Tanegashima—
Page 6 and 7: Nordic Institute of Asian StudiesMo
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Page 10 and 11: Illustrations and TablesMAPPlaces m
Page 12 and 13: Preface and AcknowledgementsTHIS ST
Page 14 and 15: Notes on UsageJAPANESE WORDS ARE TR
Page 16 and 17: xvDay labourer, national average, p
Page 18 and 19: IntroductionTHE WORD JUKU (A PRIVAT
Page 20 and 21: INTRODUCTION 3period juku for other
Page 22 and 23: INTRODUCTION 5the 1870s, were stron
Page 24 and 25: INTRODUCTION 7Chapter 1 positions t
Page 26 and 27: INTRODUCTION 95 Nihon kyōikushi sh
Page 28 and 29: EDUCATION IN TRANSITION FROM THE TO
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PRIVATE ACADEMIES OF CHINESE LEARNI
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CHAPTER FOURLife at the JukuWHAT WA
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LIFE AT THE JUKU 119If the entire p
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LIFE AT THE JUKU 121Hōkoku’s fam
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LIFE AT THE JUKU 123was transferred
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LIFE AT THE JUKU 125students of all
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LIFE AT THE JUKU 127The transformat
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LIFE AT THE JUKU 129Thus personal (
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LIFE AT THE JUKU 131expound back an
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LIFE AT THE JUKU 133The list includ
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LIFE AT THE JUKU 135Suisaien has al
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LIFE AT THE JUKU 137Possibly the de
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LIFE AT THE JUKU 139Kumamoto prefec
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LIFE AT THE JUKU 141there is a smal
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LIFE AT THE JUKU 143moment. From no
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LIFE AT THE JUKU 145them? /Work har
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LIFE AT THE JUKU 147the country. In
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LIFE AT THE JUKU 149chose this time
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LIFE AT THE JUKU 151from the juku a
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LIFE AT THE JUKU 153importance with
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department of Gyōsei gakkō. Thus
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LIFE AT THE JUKU 157yōgaku student
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LIFE AT THE JUKU 159Reminiscenses e
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LIFE AT THE JUKU 161of Kangien stud
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LIFE AT THE JUKU 163was variable, a
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LIFE AT THE JUKU 165Ikeda laments t
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LIFE AT THE JUKU 167Kumamoto Nichin
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LIFE AT THE JUKU 169Los Angeles: Un
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LIFE AT THE JUKU 17178 Yamamura, Ba
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LIFE AT THE JUKU 173kyōikuka (Roma
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THE DECLINE OF THE JUKU 175around t
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THE DECLINE OF THE JUKU 17795). Nis
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THE DECLINE OF THE JUKU 179Hiramoto
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THE DECLINE OF THE JUKU 181female.
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THE DECLINE OF THE JUKU 183onwards
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THE DECLINE OF THE JUKU 185debate o
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THE DECLINE OF THE JUKU 187Kōun (b
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THE DECLINE OF THE JUKU 189as an el
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THE DECLINE OF THE JUKU 191by his p
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THE DECLINE OF THE JUKU 193attended
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THE DECLINE OF THE JUKU 195reflecti
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THE DECLINE OF THE JUKU 197elsewher
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THE DECLINE OF THE JUKU 199and pass
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THE DECLINE OF THE JUKU 201potentia
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THE DECLINE OF THE JUKU 20321 Shijo
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THE DECLINE OF THE JUKU 20550 See a
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THE DECLINE OF THE JUKU 20786 On to
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THE LEGACY OF THE JUKU 209which Nar
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THE LEGACY OF THE JUKU 211Figure 9:
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THE LEGACY OF THE JUKU 213the aim t
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THE LEGACY OF THE JUKU 215includes
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THE LEGACY OF THE JUKU 217part of f
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THE LEGACY OF THE JUKU 219from his
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THE LEGACY OF THE JUKU 221publisher
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THE LEGACY OF THE JUKU 223following
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THE LEGACY OF THE JUKU 225juku, alt
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THE LEGACY OF THE JUKU 227Confucian
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THE LEGACY OF THE JUKU 229The study
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THE LEGACY OF THE JUKU 231gratitude
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THE LEGACY OF THE JUKU 233schools;
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THE LEGACY OF THE JUKU 23527 The fo
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THE LEGACY OF THE JUKU 23762 Thomas
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CONCLUSION 239Figure 10: Scene from
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CONCLUSION 241IS THE JUKU UNIQUE?Th
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CONCLUSION 243and the Byzantine Emp
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CONCLUSION 245would be monitored by
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Select BibliographyFor books on ind
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IndexThe main entry for titles of C
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INDEX 257Han fei zi. See Kanpishi.h
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INDEX 259Kobun shinpō (Guwen zhenb
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INDEX 261Readers of the Eight Maste
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INDEX 263Tatemori Manpei (Kō, Chū
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