UNESCO SCIENCE REPORT

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UNESCO SCIENCE REPORT Figure 5.2: GERD/GDP ratio in the USA, 2002–2013 (%) Other countries are given for comparison (%) 3.5 Japan 3.47 3.0 3.12 Germany 2.85* USA 2.73* 2.55 2.5 2.42 2.0 2.17 France 2.23* China 2.08 1.5 1.07 1.0 * Provisional 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 Source: UNESCO Institute for Statistics, August 2015. USA data for 2013 from OECD Main Science and Technology Indicators, August 2015 Figure 5.3: Distribution of GERD in the USA by source of funds, 2005–2012 In constant 2005 billion PPP$ 300 Business enterprise & Abroad Government Other (higher education & private non-profit) 250 200 207.7 220.3 233.2 239.8 227.5 226.8 238.3 249.6 150 101.0 102.4 104.8 114.7 121.9 121.3 119.1 122.2 100 50 19.4 20.1 21.4 23.0 24.1 24.1 24.7 24.9 0 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 Source: UNESCO Institute for Statistics, August 2015 130
United States of America Funding from the economic stimulus package of 2009, formally known as the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act, may have buffered immediate job losses for those working in science and technology, since a significant portion of this stimulus package went to R&D. A study by Carnivale and Cheah (2015) showed that students who had majored in science, technology, engineering and mathematics were less affected by unemployment than the average American: only 5% were unemployed in 2011–2012. Those graduates having studied physical sciences were the least affected of all. However, average salaries for recent graduates have declined across all disciplines. Moreover, although the Industrial Research Institute indicates that businesses plan to hire people with experience and new graduates – albeit fewer than last year – cutbacks looming in the federal budget for R&D in 2015 and 2016 throw a pall over the economic future of publicly funded R&D funding. Flat federal research budgets Although the president makes an annual budget request, the ultimate authority on federal funding of science in the USA is Congress (bicameral parliament). Control of Congress was divided between the two main political parties from 2011 onwards, with Republicans controlling the House of Representatives and Democrats the Senate, until the Republicans gained control over the latter in January 2015. In spite of the efforts made by the government to increase allocations to research, congressional priorities have largely prevailed (Tollefson, 2012). Most federal research budgets have remained flat or declined in inflation-adjusted dollars over the past five years, as part of the congressional austerity drive to trim US$ 4 trillion from the federal budget to reduce the deficit. Since 2013, Congress has withheld approval of the federal budget presented by the government several times. This bargaining chip has been possible since 2011, when Congress passed a law stipulating that about US$ 1 trillion in automatic budget cuts across the board would start to take effect in 2013 if Congress and the White House could not agree on a plan to reduce the deficit. The deadlock over the budget in 2013 led to an administrative shutdown for several weeks, effectively putting federal employees on leave without pay. The effects of budgetary austerity and sequestration linger in federal investment, making it difficult for young scientists to establish a career, as we shall see later. This austerity drive may be explained, at least in part, by the perception of there being a lesser need for R&D than before. With two lengthy interventions in Afghanistan and Iraq winding down, the focus of research has shifted away from military technologies, causing defence-related R&D to decline accordingly. On the other hand, federal research investment in the life sciences has failed to keep pace with inflation, in spite of the emerging needs of an ageing population; in parallel, federal investment in energy and climate research has been modest. In his 2015 State of the Union address, President Obama set forth his policy priorities for the future as being the pursuit of the fight against climate change and a new Precision Medicine Initiative. The executive’s priorities are being taken forward largely thanks to collaboration between the government, industry and non-profit sectors. Some milestones built on this collaborative model are the BRAIN Initiative, the Advanced Manufacturing Partnership and the American Business Act on Climate Pledge that recently received a US$ 140 billion commitment from its partners in industry. These three initiatives are discussed in the next section. On the international scene, the USA is having to contend with the gradual, inexorable shift from a monopolar structure to a more pluralistic and globalized playing field for science. This shift is mirrored at many levels of US science, ranging from education to patent activity. For instance, the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) projects that China will exceed the USA in R&D spending by about 2019 (see also Chapter 23). Although the USA is the current world leader in R&D, its lead is narrowing and is projected to narrow further or even disappear in the near future. GOVERNMENT PRIORITIES Climate change: the science policy priority Climate change has been the Obama administration’s top priority for science policy. One key strategy has been to invest in alternative energy technologies as a way of reducing the carbon emissions that lead to climate change. This includes increasing the availability of funding for basic research in the field of energy at universities, loans for businesses and other incentives for R&D. In the aftermath of the financial crisis, the White House effectively leveraged the ensuing economic crisis as an opportunity to invest in science, research and development. Since then, however, political difficulties have forced him to scale down his ambitions. In the face of Congressional opposition, the president has taken steps to address climate change to the extent that his executive powers allow. For instance, he vetoed a congressional bill in March 2015 that would have authorized construction of the Keystone XL pipeline to carry oil from tar sands in Canada across the USA to the Gulf of Mexico. He has also overseen the creation of ambitious new fuel standards for cars and trucks, for instance. In 2014, his top scientist, John Holdren, Director of the Office of Science and Technology Chapter 5 131
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UNESCO SCIENCE REPORT Towards 2030
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UNESCO SCIENCE REPORT 742
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Table S1: Socio-economic indicators
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Table S2: R&D expenditure by sector
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Table S3: R&D expenditure as a shar
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Table S3: R&D expenditure as a shar
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Table S4: Public expenditure on ter
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Table S5: Tertiary graduates in 200
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Table S6: Total researchers and res
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Table S7: Researchers by field of s
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Table S7: Researchers by field of s
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Table S8: Scientific publications b
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Table S9: Publications by major fie
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Table S10: Scientific publications
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