Jack Salzman, Cornel West Struggles in the Promised

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53; Dickson D. Bruce, Jr., Archibald Grimke (Baton Rouge, LA, 1993), pp. 2-17;
Bernard E. Powers, Jr., Black Charlestonians (Fayetteville, AR, 1994), p. 154.
23. There is no mention of Henry's educational background. Foner, Freedom's
Lawmakers, pp. 39-40; Korn, "Jews and Negro Slavery in the Old South," pp.
117-19; Williamson, After Slavery, pp. 210; Hagy, This Happy Land, p. 100; and
Thomas Holt, Black Over White (Urbana, IL, 1977), pp. 36, 54, 64-65, 122-33, and
230.
24. We don't know why Francis, Thomas, and presumably Henry favored
Christianity to Judaism. Hagy noted, for example, that antebellum Charleston synagogues
generally restricted membership to whites only. Yet, Billy Simmons attended
Beth Elohim as a Black, a slave, and a Jew. It is conceivable that Isaac did not want
the larger community to scrutinize his socially compromised relationship and decided
against raising his sons in his faith. Also, by the 1830s Christian denominations
had made allowances for the inclusion of Blacks and Charleston had several churches
for people of color. Hagy, This Happy Land, pp. 101—102. Foner, Freedom's Lawmakers,
p. 39.
25. Dorothy Sterling, ed., We Are Your Sisters (New York, 1984), p. 280; Leon
Litwack, Been In the Storm So Long (New York, 1979), pp. 472—94; John Hope Franklin
and Alfred A. Moss, Jr., From Slavery to Freedom, 6th ed. (New York, 1988), p. 210.
26. See James D. Anderson, The Education of Blacks in the South, 1860—1935
(Chapel Hill, NC, 1988), especially chapters 1 and 2.
27. Anderson, The Education of Blacks in the South, pp. 33-50. Anderson more
directly equates postwar educational efforts with new forms of servitude in his dissertation,
"Education For Servitude: The Social Purposes of Schooling in the Black
South, 1870-1930" (Ph.D. diss., University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 1973),
pp. 1-5. Donald Spivey, Schooling for the New Slavery (Westport, CT, 1978).
28. Alfred Chandler, The Visible Hand: The Managerial Revolution in American
Business (Cambridge, MA, 1977), pp. 122-87; Walter Lafeber, The American Search for
Opportunity, 1865-1913 (Cambridge, MA, 1.993), p. 22.
29. Louis Harlan, Booker T. Washington: The Making of a Black Leader, 1856-1901
(New York, 1972), pp. 215—16; and Booker T. Washington: The Wizard of Tuskegee,
1901-1915 (New York, 1983), pp. 128-42; Anderson, The Education of Blacks in the
South, pp. 80-102, quote p. 82.
30. W.E.B. Du Bois, The Souls of Black Folk (1903) in Three Negro Classics (New
York, 1965), pp. 240—52; Raymond B. Fosdick, Adventure in Giving (New York,
1962), pp. vii—25; Franklin and Moss, From Slavery to Freedom, p. 241. For an overview
of philanthropic activities, see J. M. Stephen Peeps, "Northern Philanthropy and the