Monograph on the Potential Human Reproductive and ... - OEHHA

180 CHAPIN ET AL.
Table 17
Maximum Reported Bisphenol A Concentrations in U.S. Ambient Air and Dust Samples
Sample Bisphenol A concentration Reference
Outdoor air o52 ng/m 3 Monthly average 0.12–1.2 ng/m 3 Wilson et al. (2003, 2006); Matsumoto et al. (2005)
Indoor air r193 ng/m 3
Wilson et al. (2003, 2006); Rudel et al. (2001, 2003)
Indoor dust r17.6 mg/g Wilson et al. (2003, 2006); Rudel et al. (2001, 2003)
Drinking water o0.1 (MDL) o0.005 Boyd et al. (2003); Kuch and Ballschmiter (2001)
Table 18
Maximum Reported Bisphenol A Concentrations Measured in Foods or Food Simulants
Exposure source Bisphenol A concentration Table reference
Polycarbonate infant bottles r55 mg/L (o5 mg/L in U.S. study) Table 4
Polycarbonate tableware r5 mg/kg Table 4
Canned infant formulas r113 mg/L (o6.6 mg mg/kg in U.S. study of water mixed Table 5
formula; o13 mg/kg in U.S. formula concentrate)
Canned infant foods r77.3 mg/kg
Canned foods r842 mg/kg (r39 mg/kg in U.S. studies) Table 6
resulting from leaching of bisphenol A from polycarbonate
bottles under a variety of conditions. There minimal
data available for bisphenol A concentrations in drinking
water but these show concentrations below the limit of
detection. Bisphenol A has been detected in surface
waters and solid waste landfill leachates. Bisphenol A
has been detected in indoor dust samples and indoor and
outdoor air samples. Data for occupational exposure to
bisphenol A in the U.S. are very limited. Only 2 studies
reported TWA exposures to bisphenol A in U.S. workers.
Several estimates of human bisphenol A exposure were
developed using bisphenol A concentrations measured
in food and the environment. Although very limited for
U.S. populations, there are data reporting bisphenol A
concentrations in urine, breast milk, and amniotic fluid,
but none for blood or fetal blood. Exposure estimates
have been derived from urinary bisphenol A concentrations
in multiple studies.
1.4 Summary of Human Exposure
In 1999 and 2003, it was reported that most bisphenol
A produced in the U.S. was used in the manufacture of
polycarbonate and epoxy resins and other products
[reviewed in (Staples et al., 1998; SRI, 2004)]. Polycarbonate
plastics are used in various consumer products and
the products most likely to contribute to human exposure
are polycarbonate food containers (e.g., milk, water, and
infant bottles). Epoxy resins are used in protective
coatings. Food cans lined with epoxy resin are a potential
source of human exposure. Some polymers manufactured
with bisphenol A are FDA-approved for use in
direct and indirect food additives and in dental materials
(FDA, 2006). Resins, polycarbonate plastics, and other
products manufactured from bisphenol A can contain
trace amounts of residual monomer and additional
monomer may be generated during breakdown of the
polymer (European-Union, 2003).
Bisphenol A may be present in the environment as a
result of direct releases from manufacturing or processing
facilities, fugitive emissions during processing
and handling, or release of unreacted monomer
from products (European-Union, 2003). Because of its
low volatility and relatively short half-life in the
atmosphere, bisphenol A is unlikely to be present in
the atmosphere in high concentrations (European-
Union, 2003). A study of 222 homes and 29 day care
centers found bisphenol A in 31–44% of outdoor air
samples with concentrations of oLOD (0.9) to 51.5 ng/
m 3 (Wilson et al., 2006). Rapid biodegradation of
bisphenol A in water was reported in the majority of
studies reviewed by the European Union (2003) and
Staples et al. (1998). Drinking water concentrations of
bisphenol A at Louisiana and Detroit Michigan water
treatment plants were below the limit of detection
(o0.1 ng/L). Chlorinated congeners of bisphenol A
resulting from chlorination of water may be degraded
less rapidly (Gallard et al., 2004). Bisphenol A is not
expected to be stable, mobile, or bioavailable from soils
(Fent et al., 2003). A study of 222 homes and 29 day care
centers found bisphenol A in 25–70% of indoor dust
samples with concentrations of oLOD (20) to 707 ng/g
(Wilson et al., 2006). The potential for bioconcentration of
bisphenol A in fish is low (Staples et al., 1998; European-
Union, 2003). Table 17 summarizes concentrations of
bisphenol A detected in environmental samples and
drinking water.
The highest potential for human exposure to
bisphenol A is through products that directly contact
food such as food and beverage containers with
internal epoxy resin coatings and polycarbonate tableware
and bottles, such as those used to feed infants
(European-Union, 2003). Studies examining the extraction
of bisphenol A from polycarbonate bottles or
tableware into food simulants are summarized in
Table 4. Studies measuring bisphenol A concentrations
in canned infant foods are summarized in Table 5 and
studies measuring bisphenol A concentrations in
canned food are summarized in Table 6. Table 18
summarizes the general findings from all the food
contact–material studies. Bisphenol A concentrations
were measured in canned foods produced and purchased
from various countries.
Table 19 summarizes BPA concentrations reported in
human body fluids. Measurement of bisphenol A
concentrations are affected by measurement technique,
Birth Defects Research (Part B) 83:157–395, 2008