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88 � Transportation Statistics Annual Report 1996 eled off, new initiatives have been undertaken to foster markets for alternative fuels 1 and vehicles that reduce vehicular air pollution. In response to requirements of the 1990 Clean Air Act Amendments (CAAA), automobile manufacturers and the petroleum industry teamed up to develop cleaner gasoline and diesel fuels. The efforts to develop reformulated gasoline (RFG) and cleaner diesel fuel were novel in viewing vehicle and fuel as a single system and attempting to improve their performance jointly. Despite some initial start-up problems, the RFG program was successfully implemented. By the end of 1995, RFG accounted for about onequarter of U.S. gasoline demand. RFG followed on the heels of cleaner diesel fuel, introduced nationwide in 1994. The 1992 Energy Policy Act (EPACT) and the 1990 CAAA call for more widespread use of alternatives to petroleum fuels (a thrust also supported by the Intermodal Surface Transportation Efficiency Act (ISTEA). With the exception of reformulated gasoline, alternative fuels are still a very minor component of transportation fuels. Yet continued technological advances combined with the experience manufacturers and consumers are gaining with these technologies are making alternative fuels increasingly viable substitutes for gasoline. Alternative Fuel Vehicle Fleet programs prompted by the CAAA and ISTEA as well as EPACT also gained momentum in 1995. It is important to note that many of the environmental impacts of transportation arise from its use of energy. Burning fossil fuels for transportation produces most of the harmful air pollution from transportation and nearly all of the emissions of greenhouse gases. Production of transportation fuels also can create upstream environmental impacts from, for example, oil spills and leaking storage tanks, and land-use 1 Alternative fuels include methanol, ethanol, natural gas (in either compressed or liquid form), electricity (to power electric vehicles), hydrogen, and reformulated gasoline. conflicts related to exploration and development of oil fields. These and other environmental impacts associated with transportation energy use are discussed in detail in Part II. This chapter reviews energy use in the transportation sector. Attention is given to the sector’s continued dependence on imported oil and the slowing of energy efficiency gains in recent years. The growth in alternative fuels and vehicles use, prompted by environmental concerns, is also discussed. Finally, historical trends in transportation energy use is examined using Divisia Analysis. Energy Use Transportation, including equipment, travel, and freight shipments, is the fastest growing sector of the world economy. It has also been virtually the only growth sector for oil demand over the past 20 years. (World Energy Council 1995) Despite two price upheavals in the world oil market, transportation energy demand grew at an average annual rate of 1.8 percent per year in industrialized (Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development—OECD) economies and at 2.0 percent per year in the former communist economies. But in the developing world, where the greatest potential for growth lies, transportation energy use increased at 4.5 percent per year, despite the effects of oil price increases. Automobile ownership rates in most developing countries are only a small fraction of those in the advanced industrial economies (see chapter 9). Not surprisingly, ownership rates are growing most rapidly in the economies with the fewest vehicles. China and the former Soviet Union, with huge land areas and vast populations, have enormous potential for expansion of highway transportation. Worldwide, freight transport has grown 3 percent annually and air passenger transport 7 percent per year. Over the
next two decades, transportation is expected to be the principal reason for growing world oil demand. Highway vehicles continue to dominate transportation energy use and petroleum continues to be the dominant energy source. In the United States, passenger cars use 42 percent of total transportation energy, light trucks 20 percent, and heavier trucks 16 percent. Highway vehicles of all types account for 78 percent of the transportation sector’s energy demand (see figure 4-1). Air transport is the biggest energy user among nonhighway modes and the fastest growing mode of all. Pipelines, which amount to 4 percent of total transportation energy use, are Chapter 4 Energy and Transportation � 89 the only major mode that does not depend on petroleum as a fuel. Natural gas, used exclusively by natural gas pipelines, fuels 76 percent of pipelines’ energy demand. All other types of pipelines (crude oil, oil products, coal slurry, and water) use electric pumps. In the United States, transportation is the only major energy-using sector that consumes more petroleum today than it did in 1973. This in part arises from the continued growth of transportation, and in part from transportation’s continued reliance on oil (see figure 4-2). The oil price shocks of 1973–74 and 1979–80 depressed energy demand but did nothing to shake transportation’s dependence on oil. FIGURE 4-1: TRANSPORTATION ENERGY USE IN THE UNITED STATES BY MODE, 1993 Air 8.9% Other trucks 15.9% �� Pipeline Rail 2.1% 4.0% �� Water 6.6% �� yyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyy �� yyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyy �� yyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyy �� yyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyy �� yyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyy �� yyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyy �� yyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyy �� yyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyy �� yyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyy �� yyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyy �� yyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyy �� yyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyy �� yyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyy �� yyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyy �� yyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyy �� yyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyy �� yyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyy �� yyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyy �� yyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyy �� yyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyy �� yyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyy �� yyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyy �� yyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyy �� yyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyy �� yyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyy �� yyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyy �� yyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyy �� yyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyy �� Light trucks �� 19.5% �� NOTE: Does not include off-road motor vehicle use. Buses 0.8% Automobiles 42.0% Motorcycles 0.1% SOURCE: S.C. Davis, Transportation Energy Data Book, Edition 15, ORNL-6856 (Oak Ridge, TN: Oak Ridge National Laboratory, 1995), table 2.10.
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Bureau of Transportation Statistics
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U.S. DEPARTMENT OF TRANSPORTATION F
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5 THE STATE OF TRANSPORTATION STATI
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List of Figures PART I: THE STATE O
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9 AN INTERNATIONAL COMPARISON OF TR
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8 TRANSPORTATION AND AIR QUALITY: A
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well as the condition and performan
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cance of transportation is comparab
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U.S. society over the lifetime of p
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and compile statistical information
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onmental impacts focus on individua
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Angeles recorded 208 unhealthful da
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Part I The State of the Transportat
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4 � Transportation Statistics Ann
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10 � Transportation Statistics An
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To capture the rich interplay betwe
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Page 68 and 69: Measures of Transportation’s Impo
Page 70 and 71: New car Used car Gas and oil Gas ta
Page 72 and 73: Vehicle Operating Costs Vehicle pur
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Page 108 and 109: _____. 1996. 1995 Traffic Crashes,
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Page 138 and 139: tion accounts for about one-ninth o
Page 140 and 141: cases the results have fallen short
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Page 144 and 145: vehicles significantly lower the pe
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Page 148 and 149: such as the Clean Air Act and Amend
Page 150 and 151: C H A P T E R S E V E N ENVIRONMENT
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Page 154 and 155: Index, 1970 = 1.0 2.5 2.0 1.5 1.0 0
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1988; before 1988, PM-10 was not di
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new CAAA regulations required a red
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that without the improvement, VOC e
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fuels are derived from natural gas
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Gallons (millions) 25 20 15 10 5 B
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The Strategic Targeting and Respons
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EPNdB Large jet—Stage 1 (L) Large
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� Aircraft Noise Aircraft noise b
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Chapter 7 Environmental Trends and
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iron, and other metals, and greater
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Re-use Waste tire inventory Process
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� Transportation of Hazardous Mat
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Netherlands employ compensatory pro
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Billions of 1990 dollars 30 25 20 1
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Developing the information needed f
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_____. 1990. Pollutant Loadings and
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172 � Transportation Statistics A
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Index, 1980 = 100 A. CO emissions,
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Appendices
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AAMVA American Association of Motor
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ISTEA Intermodal Surface Transporta
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U.S. to Metric Length (approximate)
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A Aboveground storage tanks, xxi, 1
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C CAA. See Clean Air Act CAAA. See
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Energy efficiency combination truck
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evenues, 53-56 subsidies paid to op
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Malaysia emissions control efforts,
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energy demand projections, 95 exter
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Tires burning, 158 disposal, xxi, 1
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physical condition and performance,
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