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1988; before 1988, PM-10 was not distinguished from larger suspended particulates.) PM-10 sources include both anthropogenic and natural sources. Most PM-10 originates from diffuse sources that cover large areas (e.g., dust from roads and farms, from fires, and wind erosion). These “miscellaneous” and “natural” sources account for the lion’s share—94 percent—of PM-10 emissions. The remaining PM- 10 emanates from discrete or point sources (e.g., transportation vehicles, manufacturing, and other industrial processes). Of this small share of PM-10 from discrete anthropogenic sources, transportation vehicles Chapter 7 Environmental Trends and the U.S. Transportation System � 139 TABLE 7-4: NITROGEN OXIDES EMISSIONS BY SOURCE, 1985, 1991, AND 1994 (THOUSAND SHORT TONS) Percentage change Source category 1985 1991 1994 1985–94 1991–94 Mobile sources 10,823 10,170 10,625 –1.8 4.5 Highway vehicles 8,089 7,373 7,530 –6.9 2.1 Light-duty gas vehicles and motorcycles 3,806 3,464 3,750 –1.5 8.3 Light-duty gas trucks 1,530 1,339 1,432 –6.4 6.9 Heavy-duty gas vehicles 330 326 333 0.9 2.1 Diesels 2,423 2,244 2,015 –16.8 –10.2 Nonroad vehicles and mobile equipment 2,734 2,796 3,095 13.2 10.6 Nonroad gasoline a 113 122 133 17.7 9.0 Nonroad diesel a 1,562 1,433 1,673 7.1 16.7 Aircraft 119 139 153 28.6 10.1 Marine vessels 131 174 188 43.5 8.0 Railroad 808 929 947 17.2 1.9 Fuel combustion 10,837 11,382 11,728 8.2 3.0 Industrial processes 891 837 889 –0.2 6.2 Miscellaneous 309 283 374 21 32.2 Total emissions 22,860 22,672 23,615 3.3 4.2 a Includes a mixture of off-highway vehicles used in transportation and mobile equipment used in nontransportation activities. In 1994, emissions from nonroad construction vehicles and mobile equipment accounted for 14 percent of all mobile source nitrogen oxides emissions. NOTE: Subtotals may not add due to rounding. Data for 1991 included because nitrogen oxides emissions in this year reached their lowest point in the 1985–94 period. SOURCE: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards, National Air Pollutant Emission Trends, 1990–1994, EPA-454/R-95-011 (Research Triangle Park, NC: October 1995), table A-2, pp. A6–A9. contributed 27 percent in 1994. Since 1988, PM-10 emissions from highway vehicles decreased, while emissions from off-highway vehicles increased. Nonhighway diesels, in particular, accounted for one-third of the vehicular PM-10 emissions. Fugitive road dust—dust kicked up from paved and unpaved roads—is categorized as a miscellaneous, not as a transportation source of PM-10. From 1985 to 1994, dust from paved roads increased by 25 percent, while dust from unpaved roads increased by 11 percent. In 1994, according to EPA, road dust accounted for over 40 percent of all anthropogenic and biogenic
140 � Transportation Statistics Annual Report 1996 �� 240 �� 200 �� 160 �� 120 �� yyyyy �� yyyyy �� yyyyy �� yyyyy �� yyyyy 80 �� yyyyy �� yyyyy �� 40�� yyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyy �� yyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyy �� yyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyy �� yyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyy 0 �� yyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyy �� PM-10 emissions. (USEPA 1995b) Road dust also accounted for over 30 percent of emissions of very fine particles—those measuring 2.5 microns or smaller (PM-2.5). (Barnard 1996) A debate exists about what size and kind of road dust should be used in setting health-based attainment standards for particulate matter. Further research into the relationships between health effects and particle size and composition will be needed to clarify and eventually quantify the specific health effects of road dust particulate pollution. Sulfur Dioxide � � �� Transportation Industrial process Other fuel use Emissions (million short tons) FIGURE 7-4: LEAD EMISSIONS BY SOURCE IN THE UNITED STATES, 1970–94 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1994 NOTE: Data between 1970 and 1980 are interpolated. SOURCE: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards, National Air Pollution Emission Trends, 1990–1994, EPA-454/R-95-011 (Research Triangle Park, NC: October 1995), table A-6, pp. A26–A27. TABLE 7-5: LEAD EMISSIONS BY SOURCE, 1985 AND 1994 (SHORT TONS) Percentage change Source category 1985 1994 1985–94 Mobile sources 16,207 1,596 –90.2 Highway vehicles 15,978 1,403 –91.2 Light-duty gas vehicles and motorcycles 12,070 1,048 –91.3 Light-duty gas trucks 3,595 336 –90.7 Heavy-duty gas vehicles 313 19 –93.9 Nonroad mobile sources 229 193 –15.7 Fuel combustion 515 493 –4.3 Industrial processes 3,402 2,868 –15.7 Total emissions 20,124 4,956 –75.4 NOTE: Subtotals may not add due to rounding. SOURCE: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards, National Air Pollutant Emission Trends, 1990–1994, EPA-454/R-95-011 (Research Triangle Park, NC: October 1995), table A-6, pp. A26–A27. In 1994, 43 areas were classified as nonattainment for sulfur dioxide (SO 2), mostly due to emissions from electric utilities and industrial point sources. (USEPA 1995a) The U.S. transportation sector contributed very little to SO 2 emissions since the demise of the coal-fired locomotive. In 1994, transportation accounted for only 2.7 percent of the nation’s total SO 2 emissions—a substantial drop from 1993, when
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Bureau of Transportation Statistics
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U.S. DEPARTMENT OF TRANSPORTATION F
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5 THE STATE OF TRANSPORTATION STATI
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List of Figures PART I: THE STATE O
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9 AN INTERNATIONAL COMPARISON OF TR
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8 TRANSPORTATION AND AIR QUALITY: A
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well as the condition and performan
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cance of transportation is comparab
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U.S. society over the lifetime of p
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and compile statistical information
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onmental impacts focus on individua
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Angeles recorded 208 unhealthful da
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Part I The State of the Transportat
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4 � Transportation Statistics Ann
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10 � Transportation Statistics An
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To capture the rich interplay betwe
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Tables 2-1 and 2-2 present transpor
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kinds of transportation services co
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counted as products of the manufact
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worth of industrial output to final
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Measures of Transportation’s Impo
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New car Used car Gas and oil Gas ta
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Vehicle Operating Costs Vehicle pur
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Chapter 2 Transportation and the Ec
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federal funds spent on transit, rai
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The total collections from all thes
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classified under the industry in wh
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The airline industry is using fewer
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that businesses that once depended
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Millions of current dollars Annual
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C H A P T E R T H R E E TRANSPORTAT
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Risk exposure means that the more a
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fatality rate will continue to decl
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more than $14 billion in health car
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in terms of fatalities per distance
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that figure had dropped to 14 perce
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ed duty/sleep periods before their
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more seats (Title 14 Code of Federa
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Drivers who ignore warning signs ar
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The lack of accurate, comprehensive
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_____. 1996. 1995 Traffic Crashes,
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Page 138 and 139: tion accounts for about one-ninth o
Page 140 and 141: cases the results have fallen short
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Page 144 and 145: vehicles significantly lower the pe
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Page 148 and 149: such as the Clean Air Act and Amend
Page 150 and 151: C H A P T E R S E V E N ENVIRONMENT
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Page 168 and 169: Gallons (millions) 25 20 15 10 5 B
Page 170 and 171: The Strategic Targeting and Respons
Page 172 and 173: EPNdB Large jet—Stage 1 (L) Large
Page 174 and 175: � Aircraft Noise Aircraft noise b
Page 176 and 177: Chapter 7 Environmental Trends and
Page 178 and 179: iron, and other metals, and greater
Page 180 and 181: Re-use Waste tire inventory Process
Page 182 and 183: � Transportation of Hazardous Mat
Page 184 and 185: Netherlands employ compensatory pro
Page 186 and 187: Billions of 1990 dollars 30 25 20 1
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190 � Transportation Statistics A
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Index, 1980 = 100 A. CO emissions,
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Appendices
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AAMVA American Association of Motor
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ISTEA Intermodal Surface Transporta
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U.S. to Metric Length (approximate)
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A Aboveground storage tanks, xxi, 1
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C CAA. See Clean Air Act CAAA. See
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Energy efficiency combination truck
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evenues, 53-56 subsidies paid to op
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Malaysia emissions control efforts,
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energy demand projections, 95 exter
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Tires burning, 158 disposal, xxi, 1
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physical condition and performance,
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