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CO emissions, 45 percent of all nitrogen oxides NOx emissions, and 37 percent of all hydrocarbon (HC) or volatile organic compounds (VOC) emissions. The latter three classes of substances contribute to the formation of ground-level ozone, another criteria pollutant present in smog (see figure 7-1). Although mobile sources still accounted for 32 percent of 1994 lead emissions, vehicular lead emissions are now less than 1 percent of their 1970 levels because lead has been eliminated from motor gasoline. Mobile sources account for less than 3 percent of SO 2 emissions. Chapter 7 Environmental Trends and the U.S. Transportation System � 131 BOX 7-1: MEASURING AIR QUALITY AND VEHICLE EMISSIONS TRENDS The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) monitors ambient air quality trends at 4,000 sites nationwide. Numerous samples are collected at each site throughout the year. Not all pollutants are measured at a site and different air quality indicators are used to characterize each pollutant to determine compliance with air quality standards aimed at protecting public health. The carbon monoxide standard specifies one-hour and eight-hour concentration levels; for an area to attain the standard, these averages could be exceeded only once a year. The ozone standard specifies a maximum daily one-hour average concentration to be met or bettered every day of the year. The lead standard is a maximum quarterly average. The nitrogen dioxide standard is an annual arithmetic mean. For PM-10 and sulfur dioxide, the standards specify average concentrations for the short term (24 hours or less) and long term (annual average). EPA ranks each pollutant by the 5th, 10th, 25th, 50th, 75th, 90th, and 95th percentiles. The arithmetic average for all sites is reported. Arithmetic averages are reported for sites categorized by location as rural, urban, and suburban. Finally, the areas failing to meet at least one pollutant standard are listed together with an indication of which standards were not attained. These measures do not fully describe the air quality of the United States or even that of a particular site. With so many sites and observations around the country, however, they give a useful indication of national air quality trends. EPA also prepares annual nationwide estimates of emissions of key pollutants from stationary and mobile sources. Mobile sources include eight categories of on-road vehicles and major categories of nonroad transportation vehicles (e.g., aircraft, boats, and locomotives), and mobile equipment such as lawnmowers and construction equipment. To estimate emissions from on-road vehicles, EPA makes use of several kinds of data, such as Federal Highway Administration data on vehicle-miles traveled, state-level temperature data, and data from the Federal Test Procedure (FTP), which also is used to certify compliance of newly manufactured vehicles with federal emissions standards. Emissions estimates have been prepared for every year from 1970 through the present. EPA sometimes revises its prior estimates of emissions as understanding and information about factors affecting emissions grows. Recent research suggests that emissions estimates based on FTP assumptions have underestimated real-world emissions. This issue is discussed in detail in box 8-2 in chapter 8. SOURCES: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards, National Air Quality and Emissions Trends Report, 1994, EPA 454/R-95-014 (Research Triangle Park, NC: October 1995); and U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards, National Air Pollutant Emission Trends, 1990–1994, EPA-454/R-95-011 (Research Triangle Park, NC: October 1995). Highway vehicle travel accounts for most criteria pollution from the transportation sector. Onroad vehicles produced 62 percent of all CO emissions, 32 percent of all NOx emissions, and 26 percent of all VOC emissions in 1994. Between 1970 and 1994, the highway vehicle fleet grew 80 percent, and annual vehicle-miles traveled nationwide doubled. (USDOT BTS 1995, table 5, 33, 41) Technological changes resulting from the CAA, however, have controlled highway vehicle emissions to a substantial degree (see figure 7-2). In part because of the control of
132 � Transportation Statistics Annual Report 1996 BOX 7-2: TRANSPORTATION’S SHARE OF MOBILE SOURCE POLLUTION The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) divides air pollution sources into stationary sources and mobile sources. Mobile sources are further divided into on-road sources and nonroad sources. EPA prepares emissions estimates each year for the following mobile sources: On-road mobile sources: Light-duty gas vehicles and motorcycles Light-duty gas trucks Heavy-duty gas vehicles Light-duty diesel vehicles Light-duty diesel trucks Heavy-duty diesel trucks Nonroad mobile sources: Aircraft Marine vessels (includes estimates for coal, diesel, and residual oil) Railroads Other nonroad gasoline and diesel sources, including: recreation construction industrial lawn and garden farm light commercial logging airport service recreational marine vessels (gasoline only) other (gasoline only) road vehicle emissions, the concentration of criteria pollutants in the air has decreased, and ambient air quality is better in most areas (see figure 7-3). Most of the progress to date in curbing criteria air pollution from transportation can be attributed to: 1) tailpipe or other emissions standards for newly manufactured highway vehicles (see table 7-1 for examples); and 2) requirements that harmful substances be re- All emissions from on-road sources, aircraft, marine vessels, and railroads can be attributed to transportation. Some other nonroad emissions (such as from airport services and recreational marine vessels) also are transportation-related. Emissions from some nonroad sources (such as lawn and garden equipment) clearly should not be attributed to transportation, and, strictly speaking, only a portion of the emissions from nonroad mobile equipment used in industry, construction, and farming should be attributed to transportation, since the equipment may also be used to process goods and materials. On-road sources (especially light-duty gasoline vehicles, which have been subject to the most stringent emissions standards) account for most of the progress in reducing emissions from mobile sources over the years. Overall emissions from less regulated mobile sources (both in the on-road and nonroad categories) have increased for some pollutants. A life-cycle accounting of air pollution from the transportation sector also would need to take into account the fraction of emissions from stationary sources that produce, store, or dispose of raw materials and goods used in transportation. Examples include oil wells, petroleum refineries and storage facilities, and factories for manufacture of materials, parts, and vehicles used for transportation. duced or removed from fuels, or that substances be added to fuels to make them pollute less. (Thus, lead essentially has been eliminated from fuel, and the sulfur content of fuel has been reduced greatly). As is reported later in this chapter, had nothing been done, tailpipe and other vehicular emissions of criteria pollutants would have more than doubled between 1970 and 1994 because of the growth in travel. Instead, EPA estimates that
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Bureau of Transportation Statistics
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U.S. DEPARTMENT OF TRANSPORTATION F
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5 THE STATE OF TRANSPORTATION STATI
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List of Figures PART I: THE STATE O
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9 AN INTERNATIONAL COMPARISON OF TR
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8 TRANSPORTATION AND AIR QUALITY: A
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well as the condition and performan
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cance of transportation is comparab
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U.S. society over the lifetime of p
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and compile statistical information
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onmental impacts focus on individua
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Angeles recorded 208 unhealthful da
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Part I The State of the Transportat
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4 � Transportation Statistics Ann
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10 � Transportation Statistics An
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To capture the rich interplay betwe
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Tables 2-1 and 2-2 present transpor
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kinds of transportation services co
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counted as products of the manufact
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worth of industrial output to final
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Measures of Transportation’s Impo
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New car Used car Gas and oil Gas ta
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Vehicle Operating Costs Vehicle pur
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Chapter 2 Transportation and the Ec
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federal funds spent on transit, rai
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The total collections from all thes
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classified under the industry in wh
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The airline industry is using fewer
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that businesses that once depended
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Millions of current dollars Annual
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C H A P T E R T H R E E TRANSPORTAT
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Risk exposure means that the more a
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fatality rate will continue to decl
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more than $14 billion in health car
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in terms of fatalities per distance
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that figure had dropped to 14 perce
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ed duty/sleep periods before their
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Page 108 and 109: _____. 1996. 1995 Traffic Crashes,
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Page 138 and 139: tion accounts for about one-ninth o
Page 140 and 141: cases the results have fallen short
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Page 150 and 151: C H A P T E R S E V E N ENVIRONMENT
Page 154 and 155: Index, 1970 = 1.0 2.5 2.0 1.5 1.0 0
Page 156 and 157: highway vehicles emit only half the
Page 158 and 159: 7-3). VOC emissions from mobile sou
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Page 168 and 169: Gallons (millions) 25 20 15 10 5 B
Page 170 and 171: The Strategic Targeting and Respons
Page 172 and 173: EPNdB Large jet—Stage 1 (L) Large
Page 174 and 175: � Aircraft Noise Aircraft noise b
Page 176 and 177: Chapter 7 Environmental Trends and
Page 178 and 179: iron, and other metals, and greater
Page 180 and 181: Re-use Waste tire inventory Process
Page 182 and 183: � Transportation of Hazardous Mat
Page 184 and 185: Netherlands employ compensatory pro
Page 186 and 187: Billions of 1990 dollars 30 25 20 1
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182 � Transportation Statistics A
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Index, 1980 = 100 A. CO emissions,
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Appendices
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AAMVA American Association of Motor
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ISTEA Intermodal Surface Transporta
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U.S. to Metric Length (approximate)
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A Aboveground storage tanks, xxi, 1
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C CAA. See Clean Air Act CAAA. See
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Energy efficiency combination truck
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evenues, 53-56 subsidies paid to op
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Malaysia emissions control efforts,
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energy demand projections, 95 exter
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Tires burning, 158 disposal, xxi, 1
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physical condition and performance,
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