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List of Figures PART I: THE STATE OF THE TRANSPORTATION SYSTEM 1 TRAVEL, THE MOVEMENT OF FREIGHT, AND THE TRANSPORTATION SYSTEM 1-1: Change in Passenger-Miles Traveled and Factors Affecting Travel Demand, 1970–94 . . . 7 1-2: Population Growth by Region, 1970–94 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 1-3: Passenger-Miles by Mode, 1994 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 1-4: Vehicle-Miles Traveled per Capita, 1994 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 1-5: Enplanements at Major Hubs, 1985 and 1994 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 1-6: Transit Passenger-Miles by City, 1993 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 1-7: Intercity Freight Transportation, 1970–94 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 1-8: Value, Tons, and Ton-Miles of Freight Shipments by Mode, 1993 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 1-9: Value, Tons, and Ton-Miles of Freight Shipments by Distance, 1993 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 1-10: Railroad Network Showing Volume of Freight, 1994 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 1-11: Transborder Truck Access . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 1-12: Tonnage Handled by Major U.S. Ports, 1994 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 1-13: Regional Share of Total Annual Value of Oceanborne Foreign Trade, 1980 and 1993 . . . 24 1-14: Highway Mileage in Poor and Mediocre Condition by Functional System, 1983–91 . . . . 25 2 TRANSPORTATION AND THE ECONOMY 2-1: U.S. Gross Domestic Product by Major Social Function, 1994 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 2-2: Trend of Labor Productivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 2-3: Total Consumer Expenditures by Major Category, 1993 and 1994 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 2-4: Detailed Consumer Expenditures on Transportation, 1993 and 1994 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 2-5: Average Consumer Unit Transportation Expenditures by Region, 1994 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 2-6: Use of Transport Modes by Foreign Visitors to the United States, 1994 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 2-7: Transportation Trust Fund Revenues, 1977–94 (millions of constant 1987 dollars) . . . . . 56 2-8: Transportation Trust Fund Revenues, 1977–94 (millions of current dollars) . . . . . . . . . . . 56 2-9: Transportation Trust Funds—End of Year Cash Balances, 1977–94 (millions of constant 1987 dollars) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 2-10: Transportation Trust Funds—End of Year Cash Balances, 1977–95 (millions of current dollars) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 2-11: Annual Growth of Transportation Productivity, 1980–92 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 2-12: For-Hire Trucking Industry Operating Expenditures by Cost Items, 1988 and 1993 . . . . 60 2-13: Class I Railroad Industry Total Expenditures by Cost Items, 1988 and 1993 . . . . . . . . . 63 2-14: Class I Railroads Net Operating Revenue, 1984–93 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63 3 TRANSPORTATION AND SAFETY 3-1: Pre-Retirement Years of Life Lost by Age, 1992 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66 3-2: Indicators of Motor Vehicle Use and Fatality Rate, 1981–94 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 3-3: Drivers in Fatal Crashes by Level of Blood Alcohol Concentration and Vehicle Type, 1982 and 1994 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74 3-4: Accident Rates for U.S. Commuter Airlines, 1975–94 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79 3-5: Accidents and Fatalities at Rail-Highway Grade Crossings, 1980–94 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80 4 ENERGY AND TRANSPORTATION 4-1: Transportation Energy Use in the United States by Mode, 1993 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89 4-2: U.S. Transportation Energy Use, 1950–94 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90 viii
4-3: Petroleum Demand in the Transportation Sector in OECD Countries Relative to Oil Use in All Sectors of Non-OECD Countries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91 4-4: Petroleum Dependency of U.S. Economic Sectors, 1973 and 1994 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92 4-5: Light-Duty Vehicle Fuel Economy, 1970–94 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93 4-6: Single-Trailer Combination Truck Fuel Economy, 1973–92 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93 4-7: Multiple-Trailer Combination Truck Fuel Economy, 1973–92 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94 4-8: Energy Intensity of Passenger Travel by Mode, 1970–93 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94 4-9: Changes in Transportation Energy Use, 1972–93 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100 4-10: Changes in Freight Transportation Energy Use, 1972–93 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 4-11: Changes in Passenger Transportation Energy Use, 1972–93 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102 4-12: Changes in Highway Passenger Transportation Energy Use, 1972–93 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102 4-13: Changes in Air Passenger Transportation Energy Use, 1972–93 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 4-14: Changes in Rail Freight Transportation Energy Use, 1972–93 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 PART II: TRANSPORTATION AND THE ENVIRONMENT 6 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS OF TRANSPORTATION 6-1a: Price and Quantity of Transportation When Environmental Costs are not a Factor . . . . 124 6-1b: Cost Curve S’ Representing Both Private Cost and Cost of Environmental Damage . . 124 6-1c: Market Solution When Costs of Environmental Damage are Internalized . . . . . . . . . . . 125 6-1d: Market Solution When Improved Technology Decreases the Rate of Environmental Damage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125 7 ENVIRONMENTAL TRENDS AND THE U.S. TRANSPORTATION SYSTEM 7-1: Transportation’s Share of U.S. Criteria Pollutant Emissions, 1994 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133 7-2: Road Vehicle Air Emissions and Miles Traveled, 1970–94 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133 7-3: U.S. Air Quality Trends, 1975–94 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134 7-4: Lead Emissions by Source in the United States, 1970–94 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140 7-5: Carbon Monoxide Emissions from U.S. Transportation, 1970–94 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141 7-6: Volatile Organic Compounds Emissions from U.S. Transportation, 1970–94 . . . . . . . . . 142 7-7: Nitrogen Oxides Emissions from U.S. Transportation, 1970–94 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142 7-8: Carbon Dioxide Emissions from the U.S. Transportation Sector, 1994 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144 7-9: Carbon Dioxide Emissions in the United States, 1994 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144 7-10: Reported Volume of Oil Spilled in U.S. Waters, 1973–93 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147 7-11: Oil Spills in U.S. Waters by Major Source, 1993 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147 7-12: Transportation Noise Levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151 7-13: Comparison of Stages 2 and 3 Noise Limits for Take-Off . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154 7-14: Disposition of U.S. Scrap Tires, 1990 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159 7-15: Mobile Source Emissions Control Costs in the United States, 1972–93 . . . . . . . . . . . . 165 8 TRANSPORTATION AND AIR QUALITY: A METROPOLITAN PERSPECTIVE 8-1: U.S. Population Living in Metropolitan Areas by Size and in Nonmetropolitan Areas, 1970 and 1990 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172 8-2: Population Change in Central Cities and Metropolitan Areas, 1960–90 . . . . . . . . . . . . 173 8-3: Journey-to-Work Mode Shares in Selected MSAs, 1990 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181 ix
Page 2 and 3: Bureau of Transportation Statistics
Page 4 and 5: U.S. DEPARTMENT OF TRANSPORTATION F
Page 6 and 7: 5 THE STATE OF TRANSPORTATION STATI
Page 10 and 11: 9 AN INTERNATIONAL COMPARISON OF TR
Page 12 and 13: 8 TRANSPORTATION AND AIR QUALITY: A
Page 14 and 15: well as the condition and performan
Page 16 and 17: cance of transportation is comparab
Page 18 and 19: U.S. society over the lifetime of p
Page 20 and 21: and compile statistical information
Page 22 and 23: onmental impacts focus on individua
Page 24 and 25: Angeles recorded 208 unhealthful da
Page 26 and 27: Part I The State of the Transportat
Page 28 and 29: 4 � Transportation Statistics Ann
Page 34 and 35: 10 � Transportation Statistics An
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To capture the rich interplay betwe
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Tables 2-1 and 2-2 present transpor
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kinds of transportation services co
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counted as products of the manufact
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worth of industrial output to final
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Measures of Transportation’s Impo
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New car Used car Gas and oil Gas ta
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Vehicle Operating Costs Vehicle pur
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Chapter 2 Transportation and the Ec
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federal funds spent on transit, rai
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The total collections from all thes
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classified under the industry in wh
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The airline industry is using fewer
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that businesses that once depended
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Millions of current dollars Annual
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C H A P T E R T H R E E TRANSPORTAT
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Risk exposure means that the more a
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fatality rate will continue to decl
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more than $14 billion in health car
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in terms of fatalities per distance
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that figure had dropped to 14 perce
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ed duty/sleep periods before their
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more seats (Title 14 Code of Federa
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Drivers who ignore warning signs ar
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The lack of accurate, comprehensive
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_____. 1996. 1995 Traffic Crashes,
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88 � Transportation Statistics An
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100 � Transportation Statistics A
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tion accounts for about one-ninth o
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cases the results have fallen short
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� Water Pollution The major sourc
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vehicles significantly lower the pe
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Total social cost at quantity Q' wh
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such as the Clean Air Act and Amend
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C H A P T E R S E V E N ENVIRONMENT
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CO emissions, 45 percent of all nit
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Index, 1970 = 1.0 2.5 2.0 1.5 1.0 0
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highway vehicles emit only half the
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7-3). VOC emissions from mobile sou
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1988; before 1988, PM-10 was not di
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new CAAA regulations required a red
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that without the improvement, VOC e
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fuels are derived from natural gas
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Gallons (millions) 25 20 15 10 5 B
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The Strategic Targeting and Respons
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EPNdB Large jet—Stage 1 (L) Large
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� Aircraft Noise Aircraft noise b
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Chapter 7 Environmental Trends and
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iron, and other metals, and greater
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Re-use Waste tire inventory Process
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� Transportation of Hazardous Mat
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Netherlands employ compensatory pro
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Billions of 1990 dollars 30 25 20 1
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Developing the information needed f
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_____. 1990. Pollutant Loadings and
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Index, 1980 = 100 A. CO emissions,
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Appendices
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AAMVA American Association of Motor
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ISTEA Intermodal Surface Transporta
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U.S. to Metric Length (approximate)
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A Aboveground storage tanks, xxi, 1
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C CAA. See Clean Air Act CAAA. See
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Energy efficiency combination truck
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evenues, 53-56 subsidies paid to op
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Malaysia emissions control efforts,
Page 296 and 297:
energy demand projections, 95 exter
Page 298 and 299:
Tires burning, 158 disposal, xxi, 1
Page 300:
physical condition and performance,
show all

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