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Index, 1980 = 100 A. CO emissions, all mobile sources B. NOx emissions, road sources only C. VOC emissions, all mobile sources 160 140 120 100 80 60 40 180 160 140 120 100 80 60 140 130 120 110 100 90 80 70 60 1980 United States 1984 FIGURE 9-2: MOBILE SOURCE AIR EMISSIONS IN SELECTED OECD COUNTRIES, 1980–93 1988 1992 1980 1984 Japan 1988 1992 1980 Western Germany KEY: CO = carbon monoxide; NOx = oxides of nitrogen; VOC = volatile organic compounds. NOTE: No data are available for VOC emissions in Japan and France. 1984 1988 1992 1980 Netherlands 1984 1988 1992 1980 Denmark 1984 1988 1992 1980 1984 France 1988 1992 1980 United Kingdom SOURCES: U.S. data are from U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, National Air Pollutant Emission Trends, 1900–1994, EPA 454/R-95-011 (Research Triangle Park, NC: 1995); data for other countries are from Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, OECD Environmental Data: Compendium 1995 (Paris, France: 1995). 1984 1988 1992 210 � Transportation Statistics Annual Report 1996
are from the most recent estimates published by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) for these years. (USEPA 1995) Trends for NOx and CO emissions in Japan are also portrayed. Japan has been one of the most aggressive countries in controlling air pollution from cars, but the OECD data on Japan does not include all years in the time series, and does not include VOC. The trend data should be interpreted cautiously, as there are differences among countries in the way emissions are measured. Although efforts to develop more consistent emissions data have been underway in Europe since 1985, the OECD data reported here are not necessarily internally consistent. (USEPA 1995, 7-1) The OECD data for NOx emissions are reported for highway vehicles alone. The OECD data for CO and VOC, however, cover all mobile source emissions. Countries may define mobile sources and collect data in different ways. The United States, as is discussed in chapter 7, includes many categories of nonroad sources in its mobile source data, including such nontransportation sources as lawn and garden equipment. The timing and nature of control measures greatly influence emission trends. Most OECD countries have set emission standards for new vehicles. Some countries and cities have introduced a variety of other measures, as discussed in box 9-1. (U.S. programs are discussed in chapters 7 and 8). There can be significant delays between promulgation of emission standards and actual implementation. For example, it was not until the 1981 model year that newly manufactured cars in the United States were required to fully meet emissions standards initially set for 1975 by the 1970 Clean Air Act. Japan, which had adopted standards similar to those in the United States, was the first country to produce new vehicles that met the initial standards. Several European countries set standards some years before fully implementing them in the late 1980s and early 1990s. Chapter 9 An International Comparison of Transportation and Air Pollution � 211 Other factors, such as the types of fuels in use and modal mix, also affect trends. Americans, for example, drive more than western Europeans, in part because of the large land area of the United States, the relatively low density of U.S. cities, and the more limited availability of alternatives to cars for urban travel. (OECD 1995d, 71) People in Japan drive less because of high-density cities, fewer highways, and metropolitan areas served by a well-developed rail system. Of the countries in figure 9-2, the United States has one of the better records in curbing mobile source emissions. Despite rapidly growing freight and passenger transport, new passenger cars and light trucks in the United States today emit far less pollution than similar vehicles in the early 1970s (see chapters 7 and 8). Indeed, the majority of passenger car air pollution emissions in the United States today are produced by old and/or improperly maintained vehicles, or result from operation of vehicles under conditions not currently covered by current standards (see box 8-2 in chapter 8). Although data are more limited, Japan also has had much success in curbing mobile source air pollutants. A 1994 OECD evaluation of Japan’s environmental performance judged its success in meeting stringent emission requirements for automobiles as remarkable. (OECD 1994a, 123) � CO Emissions Transportation is the major source of CO emissions in OECD countries. In 1993, transportation’s share of CO ranged from 64 to 92 percent in the countries shown in figure 9-2a. Most of these countries, however, have decreased transportationrelated CO emissions over the last 15 years. Despite increased road traffic, the United States lowered CO emissions from all mobile sources (including lawn and garden equipment) by 17 percent between 1980 and 1993. Some
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Bureau of Transportation Statistics
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U.S. DEPARTMENT OF TRANSPORTATION F
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5 THE STATE OF TRANSPORTATION STATI
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List of Figures PART I: THE STATE O
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9 AN INTERNATIONAL COMPARISON OF TR
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8 TRANSPORTATION AND AIR QUALITY: A
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well as the condition and performan
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cance of transportation is comparab
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U.S. society over the lifetime of p
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and compile statistical information
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onmental impacts focus on individua
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Angeles recorded 208 unhealthful da
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Part I The State of the Transportat
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4 � Transportation Statistics Ann
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10 � Transportation Statistics An
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To capture the rich interplay betwe
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Tables 2-1 and 2-2 present transpor
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kinds of transportation services co
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counted as products of the manufact
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worth of industrial output to final
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Measures of Transportation’s Impo
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New car Used car Gas and oil Gas ta
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Vehicle Operating Costs Vehicle pur
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Chapter 2 Transportation and the Ec
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federal funds spent on transit, rai
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The total collections from all thes
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classified under the industry in wh
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The airline industry is using fewer
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that businesses that once depended
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Millions of current dollars Annual
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C H A P T E R T H R E E TRANSPORTAT
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Risk exposure means that the more a
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fatality rate will continue to decl
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more than $14 billion in health car
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in terms of fatalities per distance
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that figure had dropped to 14 perce
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ed duty/sleep periods before their
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more seats (Title 14 Code of Federa
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Drivers who ignore warning signs ar
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The lack of accurate, comprehensive
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_____. 1996. 1995 Traffic Crashes,
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100 � Transportation Statistics A
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tion accounts for about one-ninth o
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cases the results have fallen short
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� Water Pollution The major sourc
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vehicles significantly lower the pe
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Total social cost at quantity Q' wh
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such as the Clean Air Act and Amend
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C H A P T E R S E V E N ENVIRONMENT
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CO emissions, 45 percent of all nit
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Index, 1970 = 1.0 2.5 2.0 1.5 1.0 0
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highway vehicles emit only half the
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7-3). VOC emissions from mobile sou
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1988; before 1988, PM-10 was not di
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new CAAA regulations required a red
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that without the improvement, VOC e
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fuels are derived from natural gas
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Gallons (millions) 25 20 15 10 5 B
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The Strategic Targeting and Respons
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EPNdB Large jet—Stage 1 (L) Large
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� Aircraft Noise Aircraft noise b
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Chapter 7 Environmental Trends and
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iron, and other metals, and greater
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AAMVA American Association of Motor
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ISTEA Intermodal Surface Transporta
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U.S. to Metric Length (approximate)
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A Aboveground storage tanks, xxi, 1
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C CAA. See Clean Air Act CAAA. See
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Energy efficiency combination truck
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evenues, 53-56 subsidies paid to op
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Malaysia emissions control efforts,
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energy demand projections, 95 exter
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Tires burning, 158 disposal, xxi, 1
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physical condition and performance,
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