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226 � Transportation Statistics Annual Report 1996 15 percent in the former Soviet Union over the period 1980 to 1993. Thus, if FEB data are excluded, the remaining non-OECD countries’ transportation-related CO 2 emissions grew 67 percent from 1980 to 1993. While FEB countries have, in the past, relied more heavily on rail transport, there has been a significant shift toward less efficient road travel. Passenger rail in 1993 was down almost 43 percent from 1989, partly because of a fall in incomes and partly because of greater competition from private cars. Freight traffic by rail also declined in favor of road transport. (OECD 1994a, 67) Africa is the region of the world that makes the smallest contribution (3 percent) to transportation-related CO 2 emissions. From 1971 to 1993, however, the region’s mobile source emissions grew by 157 percent. Future emissions will be tied to economic growth. Research covering nine nations in eastern Africa found that the transportation sector consumes only 5 percent of total energy use, resulting in 9 million metric tons of CO 2 emissions in 1990. (Mackenzie et al. 1992) Two of the countries, Uganda and the Seychelles, experienced annual GNP growth rates over 3 percent; the balance have negative or near zero growth rates. Transportation fleets in developing countries tend to use energy less efficiently, releasing more CO 2 per unit of output. (Chatterjee and Han 1994) IEA estimates specific fuel consumption in non-OECD countries to be nearly 30 percent higher than the OECD average. Several factors explain this inefficiency: the average vehicle is old and poorly maintained, cities are congested, and the transportation infrastructure is poor. (IEA 1995, 274) Problems differ across regions, however. Vehicles tend to be less energy intensive in Asia than in Latin America and Africa. Car and engine size are smaller in India, China, and South Korea than in Venezuela. References Chatterjee, L. and X. Han. 1994. Factors Underlying Changes in the CO 2 Emissions of Selected Countries, report of a research project sponsored by the U.S. Department of Energy. Faiz, A. 1993. Automotive Emissions in Developing Countries—Relative Implications for Global Warming, Acidification and Urban Air Quality. Transportation Research 27: 3. May. Grakenheinor, R. 1994. Six Strategic Decisions for Transportation in Megacities. Megacity Growth and the Future. Edited by R.J. Fuchs, E. Brennon, J. Chamie, F. Lo, and J.I. Vitto. New York, NY: U.N. University Press. International Energy Agency (IEA). 1995. World Energy Outlook 1995. Paris, France. Michaelis, Laurie, D. Bleviss, J.-P. Orfeuil, and R. Pischinger. 1996. Mitigation Options in the Transportation Sector. Climate Change 1995: Impacts, Adaptations and Mitigation of Climate Change: Scientific-Technical Analysis, Contribution of Working Group II to the Second Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Edited by R.T. Watson, M.C. Zinyowera, and R.H. Moss. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. Mackenzie, Gordon et al. 1992. Transport Sector of Eastern Africa: Environment Related Responses. Draft. Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD). 1993a. OECD Environmental Data: Compendium 1993. Paris, France. _____. 1993b. Evaporative Emissions for Motor Vehicles and Refueling Systems, Environment Monographs, No. 56. _____. European Conference of Ministers of Transport. 1994a. 41st Annual Report. Paris, France.
_____. 1994b. Environmental Performance Reviews: Japan. Paris, France. _____. 1995a. Control of Hazardous Air Pollutants in OECD Countries. Paris, France. _____. 1995b. OECD Environmental Data: Compendium 1995. Paris, France. _____. 1995c. Motor Vehicle Pollution: Reduction Strategies Beyond 2010. Paris, France. _____. European Conference of Ministers of Transport. 1995d. Urban Travel and Sustainable Development. Paris, France. Tunali, O. 1995. Lead in Gasoline Slowly Phased Out. Vital Signs 1995: The Trends that are Shaping our Future. New York, NY: W.W. Norton. U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment (OTA). 1992. Fueling Development: Energy Technologies for Developing Countries. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office. April. _____. 1993. Energy Efficient Technology for Central and Eastern Europe. Washington: DC: U.S. Government Printing Office. May. U.S. Department of Energy (USDOE), Energy Information Administration (EIA). 1994. Energy Use and Carbon Emissions: Some International Comparisons. Washington, DC. March. Chapter 9 An International Comparison of Transportation and Air Pollution � 227 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA), Office of Air Quality. 1995. National Air Pollutant Emission Trends, 1990–1994, EPA 454/R-95-011. Research Triangle Park, NC. October. U.S. Department of Transportation (USDOT), Bureau of Transportation Statistics (BTS). 1995. Transportation Statistics Annual Report 1995. Washington, DC. November. World Bank. 1992. The World Development Report 1992: Development and the Environment. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. _____. 1993. Toward an Environmental Strategy for Asia. Washington, DC. _____. 1994. The World Development Report 1994. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. June. _____. 1995a. Air Quality Management: Considerations for Developing Countries. Washington, DC. _____. 1995b. The World Bank Atlas 1996. Washington, DC. _____. 1995c. The World Development Report 1995. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. June.
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Bureau of Transportation Statistics
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U.S. DEPARTMENT OF TRANSPORTATION F
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5 THE STATE OF TRANSPORTATION STATI
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List of Figures PART I: THE STATE O
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9 AN INTERNATIONAL COMPARISON OF TR
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8 TRANSPORTATION AND AIR QUALITY: A
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well as the condition and performan
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cance of transportation is comparab
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U.S. society over the lifetime of p
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and compile statistical information
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onmental impacts focus on individua
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Angeles recorded 208 unhealthful da
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Part I The State of the Transportat
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4 � Transportation Statistics Ann
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10 � Transportation Statistics An
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To capture the rich interplay betwe
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Tables 2-1 and 2-2 present transpor
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kinds of transportation services co
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counted as products of the manufact
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worth of industrial output to final
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Measures of Transportation’s Impo
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New car Used car Gas and oil Gas ta
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Vehicle Operating Costs Vehicle pur
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Chapter 2 Transportation and the Ec
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federal funds spent on transit, rai
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The total collections from all thes
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classified under the industry in wh
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The airline industry is using fewer
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that businesses that once depended
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Millions of current dollars Annual
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C H A P T E R T H R E E TRANSPORTAT
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Risk exposure means that the more a
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fatality rate will continue to decl
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more than $14 billion in health car
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in terms of fatalities per distance
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that figure had dropped to 14 perce
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ed duty/sleep periods before their
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more seats (Title 14 Code of Federa
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Drivers who ignore warning signs ar
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The lack of accurate, comprehensive
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_____. 1996. 1995 Traffic Crashes,
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100 � Transportation Statistics A
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tion accounts for about one-ninth o
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cases the results have fallen short
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� Water Pollution The major sourc
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vehicles significantly lower the pe
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Total social cost at quantity Q' wh
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such as the Clean Air Act and Amend
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C H A P T E R S E V E N ENVIRONMENT
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CO emissions, 45 percent of all nit
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Index, 1970 = 1.0 2.5 2.0 1.5 1.0 0
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highway vehicles emit only half the
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7-3). VOC emissions from mobile sou
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1988; before 1988, PM-10 was not di
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new CAAA regulations required a red
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that without the improvement, VOC e
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fuels are derived from natural gas
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Gallons (millions) 25 20 15 10 5 B
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The Strategic Targeting and Respons
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EPNdB Large jet—Stage 1 (L) Large
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� Aircraft Noise Aircraft noise b
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Chapter 7 Environmental Trends and
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iron, and other metals, and greater
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Re-use Waste tire inventory Process
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� Transportation of Hazardous Mat
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Netherlands employ compensatory pro
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Billions of 1990 dollars 30 25 20 1
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Developing the information needed f
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_____. 1990. Pollutant Loadings and
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Page 230 and 231: Index, 1980 = 100 A. CO emissions,
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energy demand projections, 95 exter
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Tires burning, 158 disposal, xxi, 1
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physical condition and performance,
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