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5 THE STATE OF TRANSPORTATION STATISTICS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 What We Need To Know About Transportation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 Can We Answer the Questions of Decisionmakers? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108 The BTS Program for Meeting Statistical Needs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114 PART II: TRANSPORTATION AND THE ENVIRONMENT 6 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS OF TRANSPORTATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117 Transportation-Related Environmental Impacts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119 Environmental Damage: The Concept of Externalities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122 Current Data Needs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128 Box 6-1 Selected Federal Laws Addressing the Environmental Impacts of Transportation . . . . 118 7 ENVIRONMENTAL TRENDS AND THE U.S. TRANSPORTATION SYSTEM . . . . . . . . . . 129 Air Pollution Trends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130 Water and Groundwater Contamination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146 Noise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150 Solid Waste . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154 Land-Use and Habitat Effects of Transportation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162 Costs and Benefits of Environmental Controls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164 Information Needs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167 Boxes 7-1 Measuring Air Quality and Vehicle Emissions Trends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131 7-2 Transportation’s Share of Mobile Source Pollution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132 7-3 Dredging of Sediments in Ports and Harbors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155 7-4 Comparing the Air Pollution Impacts of Different Transportation Modes . . . . . . . . . . . 166 8 TRANSPORTATION AND AIR QUALITY: A METROPOLITAN PERSPECTIVE . . . . . . . 170 Metropolitan Emissions and Air Quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173 Road Vehicles and Air Quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177 Transportation Control Measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186 Urban Form, Infrastructure, and Air Quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202 Boxes 8-1 Air Quality Standards and Attainment Levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174 8-2 Real-World Versus Expected Emission Rates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184 8-3 Congestion Pricing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187 8-4 South Coast Air Quality Management District . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190 8-5 National Capital Region: Strategies for Conforming to Federal Clean Air Standards . . 192 8-6 Portland, Oregon: Exploring the Transportation/Land-Use Link . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199 vi
9 AN INTERNATIONAL COMPARISON OF TRANSPORTATION AND AIR POLLUTION . 205 Global Trends in Motor Vehicle Use and Emissions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206 Air Emissions in OECD Countries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209 Air Pollution and Transportation in Non-OECD Countries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215 Transportation and Greenhouse Gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226 Boxes 9-1 Transportation Approaches in Several European Cities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212 9-2 Urbanization and Motor Vehicle Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216 9-3 Singapore’s Integrated Transportation Policy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218 9-4 A Surface Subway: Curitiba, Brazil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221 9-5 Nonmotorized Transportation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222 APPENDICES A AN OVERVIEW OF THE U.S. COMMERCIAL AIRLINE INDUSTRY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231 Domestic Commercial Aviation: Historical Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233 The Post Deregulation Period: 1979 to 1995 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235 Traffic Growth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236 Competitive Airfares . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239 Hub-and-Spoke Pattern . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242 Innovative Marketing Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244 Industry Financial Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245 Labor Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247 Fuel Efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248 B CONFERENCE ON THE FULL SOCIAL COSTS AND BENEFITS OF TRANSPORTATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249 Why Measure Full Social Costs and Benefits? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250 Conceptual Frameworks for Measuring and Valuing Social Costs and Benefits . . . . . . 251 Social Benefits of Transportation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254 Who Pays for Transportation? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255 Evaluating Transportation System Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258 C LIST OF ACROYNMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263 D U.S./METRIC CONVERSIONS AND ENERGY UNIT EQUIVALENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267 INDEX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269 vii
Page 2 and 3: Bureau of Transportation Statistics
Page 4 and 5: U.S. DEPARTMENT OF TRANSPORTATION F
Page 8 and 9: List of Figures PART I: THE STATE O
Page 10 and 11: 9 AN INTERNATIONAL COMPARISON OF TR
Page 12 and 13: 8 TRANSPORTATION AND AIR QUALITY: A
Page 14 and 15: well as the condition and performan
Page 16 and 17: cance of transportation is comparab
Page 18 and 19: U.S. society over the lifetime of p
Page 20 and 21: and compile statistical information
Page 22 and 23: onmental impacts focus on individua
Page 24 and 25: Angeles recorded 208 unhealthful da
Page 26 and 27: Part I The State of the Transportat
Page 28 and 29: 4 � Transportation Statistics Ann
Page 34 and 35: 10 � Transportation Statistics An
Page 56 and 57:
32 � Transportation Statistics An
Page 58 and 59:
To capture the rich interplay betwe
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Tables 2-1 and 2-2 present transpor
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kinds of transportation services co
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counted as products of the manufact
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worth of industrial output to final
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Measures of Transportation’s Impo
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New car Used car Gas and oil Gas ta
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Vehicle Operating Costs Vehicle pur
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Chapter 2 Transportation and the Ec
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federal funds spent on transit, rai
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The total collections from all thes
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classified under the industry in wh
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The airline industry is using fewer
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that businesses that once depended
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Millions of current dollars Annual
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C H A P T E R T H R E E TRANSPORTAT
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Risk exposure means that the more a
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fatality rate will continue to decl
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more than $14 billion in health car
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in terms of fatalities per distance
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that figure had dropped to 14 perce
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ed duty/sleep periods before their
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more seats (Title 14 Code of Federa
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Drivers who ignore warning signs ar
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The lack of accurate, comprehensive
Page 108 and 109:
_____. 1996. 1995 Traffic Crashes,
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Page 120 and 121:
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100 � Transportation Statistics A
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Page 126 and 127:
Page 128 and 129:
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Page 132 and 133:
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Page 136 and 137:
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tion accounts for about one-ninth o
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cases the results have fallen short
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� Water Pollution The major sourc
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vehicles significantly lower the pe
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Total social cost at quantity Q' wh
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such as the Clean Air Act and Amend
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C H A P T E R S E V E N ENVIRONMENT
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CO emissions, 45 percent of all nit
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Index, 1970 = 1.0 2.5 2.0 1.5 1.0 0
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highway vehicles emit only half the
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7-3). VOC emissions from mobile sou
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1988; before 1988, PM-10 was not di
Page 162 and 163:
new CAAA regulations required a red
Page 164 and 165:
that without the improvement, VOC e
Page 166 and 167:
fuels are derived from natural gas
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Gallons (millions) 25 20 15 10 5 B
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The Strategic Targeting and Respons
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EPNdB Large jet—Stage 1 (L) Large
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� Aircraft Noise Aircraft noise b
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Chapter 7 Environmental Trends and
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iron, and other metals, and greater
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Re-use Waste tire inventory Process
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� Transportation of Hazardous Mat
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Netherlands employ compensatory pro
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Billions of 1990 dollars 30 25 20 1
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Developing the information needed f
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_____. 1990. Pollutant Loadings and
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Index, 1980 = 100 A. CO emissions,
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Page 242 and 243:
Page 244 and 245:
Page 246 and 247:
Page 248 and 249:
Appendices
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Page 252 and 253:
Page 254 and 255:
Page 256 and 257:
Page 258 and 259:
Page 260 and 261:
Page 262 and 263:
Page 264 and 265:
Page 266 and 267:
Page 268 and 269:
Page 270 and 271:
Page 272 and 273:
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Page 276 and 277:
Page 278 and 279:
Page 280 and 281:
AAMVA American Association of Motor
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ISTEA Intermodal Surface Transporta
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U.S. to Metric Length (approximate)
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A Aboveground storage tanks, xxi, 1
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C CAA. See Clean Air Act CAAA. See
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Energy efficiency combination truck
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evenues, 53-56 subsidies paid to op
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Malaysia emissions control efforts,
Page 296 and 297:
energy demand projections, 95 exter
Page 298 and 299:
Tires burning, 158 disposal, xxi, 1
Page 300:
physical condition and performance,
show all

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