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188 � Transportation Statistics Annual Report 1996
TABLE 8-6: TRANSPORTATION CONTROL MEASURES (TCMS)
TCM Implementation mechanism Examples
Commuter trip reduction Information, education, and regulation Ridesharing incentives, vanpool programs
Area-wide ridesharing Information and education Commuter-matching programs and databases
Rail transit improvement Public facilities improvement Light-rail system, expanded underground system
HOV lanes Public facilities improvement Lanes restricted to vehicles with three or more passengers
Park-and-ride lots Public facilities improvement Peripheral lots at transit stops or as car and vanpool staging areas
Bicycle/pedestrian facilities Public facilities improvement Pedestrian and bicycle lanes, bicycle lockers at transit stops
Parking pricing Economic incentive Charging full parking costs, parking “cash-back” program
Congestion pricing Economic incentive Charge for entering congested zone, congestion-based road pricing
Emissions/vmt tax Economic incentive Charged on gasoline or through differentiated registration fee
Buy-back of older cars Economic incentive Purchase of gross polluters above market value for scrapping
Compressed work week Information and education Employees work more hours on fewer days
Telecommuting Information and education Employees work at home or at “satellite” offices
Signal timing Public facilities improvement Timed lights to reduce accelerations and control access ramps
Incident management Public facilities improvement Automated monitoring, overhead signs to warn of incidents ahead
Land-use planning Public facilities improvement, Increased density, nodal development, transit-oriented development
economic incentives, regulation
KEY: HOV = high-occupancy vehicle; vmt = vehicle-miles traveled.
SOURCE: Adapted from Apogee Research, Inc., Cost and Effectiveness of Transportation Control Measures (TCMs): A Review and Analysis of the Literature,
prepared for the National Association of Regional Councils (Washington, DC: September 1994).
The final TCM in table 8-6 is land-use planning
to reduce the need for automobile trips, decrease
average trip lengths, and facilitate nonmotorized
transportation. This longer term strategy is
addressed in detail below.
The potential of TCMs to reduce total automobile
emissions in metropolitan areas is disputed.
Some critics argue that the benefits from
TCMs may not justify the inconvenience to travelers.
(Giuliano 1992) Furthermore, many
analyses of TCMs have focused on their ability
to reduce congestion (COMSIS Corp. 1993),
which is not necessarily proportional to their
ability to reduce emissions.
Apogee Research, Inc. recently reviewed the
literature on use of TCMs to reduce VOC emissions,
and their related costs. (Apogee Research,
Inc. 1994) Table 8-7 shows key results of the
study. Apogee identified what it considered to
be a realistic maximum percentage reduction in
trips, vmt, and VOC for each TCM. It evaluated
information about the total capital, administrative,
and operating costs of each TCM to estimate
the cost per ton of VOC reduction. (The
estimates do not include the full cost of tolls,
taxes, and charges, or the costs of travel delay or
lost productivity that might be associated with
some TCMs.)
Where possible, the estimates were based on
experience with TCMs. For example, data from
California’s South Coast Air Quality Management
District (see box 8-4) were used to develop
estimates of trip reductions arising from actions
by employees. There has been, however, little or
no application in North America of TCMs for
congestion pricing, parking pricing, emissions/
vmt taxes, telecommuting, signal timing, and
incident management. In these instances, Apo-