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Billions of 1990 dollars 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 grams. (Other costs borne by highway transportation for environmental compliance, such as noise abatement, were not addressed.) DOC estimated that businesses paid 42 percent of the $17.2 billion, while consumers paid 54 percent in the form of higher vehicle prices. By dividing the $16.6 billion for motor vehicle emissions controls by the 14.2 million vehicles sold in 1993, a rough estimate of $1,150 per vehicle for emissions control costs emerges. Of course, costs vary greatly by type of vehicle and even by place, because California has stricter vehicle emission standards than the rest of the country. While the expense of motor vehicle pollution controls is considerable, the benefits are also very large, if more difficult to quantify. As documented earlier in this chapter and in chapter 8, U.S. cities would be far more polluted than they are today had there not been significant reductions in emissions from the transportation sector since 1970. Total CO emissions would be 2.5 times as great, VOC emissions would be twice Chapter 7 Environmental Trends and the U.S. Transportation System � 165 �� DOC � �� EPA �� 1972 FIGURE 7-15: MOBILE SOURCE EMISSIONS CONTROL COSTS IN THE UNITED STATES, 1972–93 1974 1976 1978 1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 SOURCES: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Policy, Planning, and Evaluation, Environmental Investments: The Cost of a Clean Environment, EPA-230-11-90-083 (Washington, DC: 1990), tables 3-1A and 3-2A; G.L. Rutledge and C.R. Vogan, “Pollution and Abatement and Control Expenditures, 1993,” Survey of Current Business, vol. 75, No. 5, May 1995, table 3, pp. 36–49; and G.L. Rutledge and C.R. Vogan, “Pollution and Abatement and Control Expenditures, 1972–92,” Survey of Current Business, vol. 74, No. 5, May 1994, table 3, pp. 36–49. as great, and NOx emissions would be 40 percent greater. Nearly all the reduction in emissions from the transportation sector is the result of emissions standards for new highway vehicles and cleaner fuel requirements. Clearly, U.S. air quality would be far worse had these transportation emissions reductions not been made. To estimate the benefits in a way that is truly comparable to the corresponding cost estimates just presented, three more steps would have to be taken. Emissions would have to be translated into air quality, air quality into impacts on health, flora, fauna, and infrastructure, and these impacts monetized. The Environmental Protection Agency is undertaking a comprehensive analysis of the costs and benefits of the Clean Air Act and is expected to issue its report to Congress in 1996.
166 � Transportation Statistics Annual Report 1996 Information Needs This chapter necessarily has relied on data developed to meet the needs of current environmental policies to describe the environmental effects of transportation. For the most part, the current environmental management system continues to treat each kind of pollution separately, even though there are complex interactions among different media. Similarly, most analyses of transportation’s environmental impacts focus on individual modes—motor vehicles, aircraft, rails—rather than comparative environmental performance among modes (see box 7-4). Moreover, a complete analysis of the environmental impacts of transportation would need to take into account upstream activities (e.g., oil field development, petroleum refining, vehicle pro- duction) that make transportation possible. In conducting such analyses, special care to avoid double counting of impacts would be needed. As policies for management of the environmental impacts of transportation evolve, so too will information needs. Questions about the costs relative to the benefits of further environmental improvement are increasingly raised, as are concerns about the dampening effects of regulation on the economy. Scientific and technical questions continue to arise concerning the nature of environmental impacts for human health and the ecosystem as a whole, and the technological capacity to address those impacts within acceptable cost-benefit ratios for society. At the same time, there is increasing interest in environmental policies that address such goals as pollution prevention and sustainable development. BOX 7-4: COMPARING THE AIR POLLUTION IMPACTS OF DIFFERENT TRANSPORTATION MODES Two recent studies in California attempted to compare the air pollution emissions of two different transportation modes. One compares the emissions of truck and rail freight transportation. The other compares emissions from automobile and rail commuting. The results show that rail transportation overall produces less air pollution than motor vehicle transportation, but on a pollutant by pollutant basis the picture is more mixed. The comparison of truck with rail freight transportation examined emissions of carbon monoxide (CO), hydrocarbon (HC), particulate matter (PM), and nitrogen oxides (NO x) in California’s I-40 corridor. (Barth and Tadi 1996). According to the study, trucks produced 2.6 times the amount of CO, 4.2 times the amount of HC, and 32.5 times the amount of PM to move the same amount of goods as rail freight. Rail produced 1.2 times the amount of NO X as trucks, however. The automobile/rail study compares commuting by single-occupant automobile with a rail-based commute (including getting to the train station, whether by automobile, bus, or other means) from Riverdale to downtown Los Angeles. Again, the study results are mixed. At current ridership levels (approximately 300 to 400 passengers a day), the automobile commute contributes 2.5 times more CO and 2.3 times the amount of HC than the trainbased commute. The train-based commute contributes 4.7 times more NO x and 5.5 times the amount of PM than commuting by automobile. The authors calculate that train ridership would have to reach about 2,000 passengers a day to break even on the emission of particulates and between 1,500 to 2,200 passengers to break even on NO x emissions. SOURCES : M. Barth and R. Tadi, “An Emissions Comparison Between Truck and Rail: A Case Study of the California I-40,” presented at the 75th Annual Transportation Board Meeting, Washington DC, January 1996; and M. Barth et al., “An Emissions Analysis of Southern California’s Metrolink Commuter Rail,” presented at the 75th Annual Transportation Board Meeting, Washington, DC, January 1996.
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Bureau of Transportation Statistics
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U.S. DEPARTMENT OF TRANSPORTATION F
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5 THE STATE OF TRANSPORTATION STATI
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List of Figures PART I: THE STATE O
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9 AN INTERNATIONAL COMPARISON OF TR
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8 TRANSPORTATION AND AIR QUALITY: A
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well as the condition and performan
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cance of transportation is comparab
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U.S. society over the lifetime of p
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and compile statistical information
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onmental impacts focus on individua
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Angeles recorded 208 unhealthful da
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Part I The State of the Transportat
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4 � Transportation Statistics Ann
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10 � Transportation Statistics An
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To capture the rich interplay betwe
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Tables 2-1 and 2-2 present transpor
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kinds of transportation services co
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counted as products of the manufact
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worth of industrial output to final
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Measures of Transportation’s Impo
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New car Used car Gas and oil Gas ta
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Vehicle Operating Costs Vehicle pur
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Chapter 2 Transportation and the Ec
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federal funds spent on transit, rai
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The total collections from all thes
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classified under the industry in wh
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The airline industry is using fewer
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that businesses that once depended
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Millions of current dollars Annual
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C H A P T E R T H R E E TRANSPORTAT
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Risk exposure means that the more a
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fatality rate will continue to decl
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more than $14 billion in health car
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in terms of fatalities per distance
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that figure had dropped to 14 perce
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ed duty/sleep periods before their
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more seats (Title 14 Code of Federa
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Drivers who ignore warning signs ar
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The lack of accurate, comprehensive
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_____. 1996. 1995 Traffic Crashes,
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100 � Transportation Statistics A
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Page 148 and 149: such as the Clean Air Act and Amend
Page 150 and 151: C H A P T E R S E V E N ENVIRONMENT
Page 152 and 153: CO emissions, 45 percent of all nit
Page 154 and 155: Index, 1970 = 1.0 2.5 2.0 1.5 1.0 0
Page 156 and 157: highway vehicles emit only half the
Page 158 and 159: 7-3). VOC emissions from mobile sou
Page 160 and 161: 1988; before 1988, PM-10 was not di
Page 162 and 163: new CAAA regulations required a red
Page 164 and 165: that without the improvement, VOC e
Page 166 and 167: fuels are derived from natural gas
Page 168 and 169: Gallons (millions) 25 20 15 10 5 B
Page 170 and 171: The Strategic Targeting and Respons
Page 172 and 173: EPNdB Large jet—Stage 1 (L) Large
Page 174 and 175: � Aircraft Noise Aircraft noise b
Page 176 and 177: Chapter 7 Environmental Trends and
Page 178 and 179: iron, and other metals, and greater
Page 180 and 181: Re-use Waste tire inventory Process
Page 182 and 183: � Transportation of Hazardous Mat
Page 184 and 185: Netherlands employ compensatory pro
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Appendices
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AAMVA American Association of Motor
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ISTEA Intermodal Surface Transporta
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U.S. to Metric Length (approximate)
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A Aboveground storage tanks, xxi, 1
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C CAA. See Clean Air Act CAAA. See
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Energy efficiency combination truck
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evenues, 53-56 subsidies paid to op
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Malaysia emissions control efforts,
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energy demand projections, 95 exter
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Tires burning, 158 disposal, xxi, 1
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physical condition and performance,
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