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The Strategic Targeting and Response System (STARS) is used to track releases and cleanup activities for underground storage tanks regulated under Subtitle I. (Other underground tanks are not included within the database.) The STARS database has been in place for a relatively short period of time, and the format of the data has changed somewhat, making it difficult to identify trends. Still, the number of active tanks regulated under Subtitle I has decreased since 1990, while closures and cleanup activities seem to show a peak in 1992–93. � Aboveground Storage Tanks In addition to their air emissions, spills from aboveground storage tanks (ASTs) are a source of groundwater contamination. ASTs at transportation facilities serve two primary functions: 1) to provide breakout storage or overflow relief at small pumping stations, or 2) to provide shortterm storage at tank farms or distribution facilities. (API 1994) Spills from these facilities are often due to overfill, failure of tank bottoms, improper disposal of tank bottom mixtures, and leakage from piping associated with tanks. A 1993 American Petroleum Institute (API) survey found improved spill prevention and reduced instances of environmentally unsound disposal practices at refining, marketing, and transportation facilities operated by API member companies. Of the 140 transportation facilities surveyed, 127 responded. This, however, represents only 8.7 percent of the transportation facilities operated by API members. Mixtures of water and dissolved or entrained hydrocarbons accumulate at the bottom of aboveground storage tanks. These water-bottom mixtures once were routinely drained onto the ground. Now, 71 percent of the respondents said they used procedures to remove, recover, or prop- Chapter 7 Environmental Trends and the U.S. Transportation System � 149 erly dispose of the water-bottom material. Only 18 percent of the responding transportation facilities had established groundwater monitoring programs. The explanation is that many facilities, such as crude oil facilities, are located away from population centers. Ten percent of the respondents confirmed groundwater contamination. The survey did not yield information about incident frequencies or accidental release volumes. Such information and more comprehensive surveys would be desirable. � Runoff Runoff from streets and parking lots is another source of water and groundwater contaminants. A study by the Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) identified the primary sources and constituents of highway runoff (see table 7-7). (USDOT FHWA 1987) Both the amount and nature of the materials are highly site-specific, depending on such factors as traffic characteristics, highway design, maintenance activities, surrounding land use, climate, and accidental spills. The study also determined that deposition from vehicles is the primary source of pollutants except during periods of ice and snow, when deicing chemicals and abrasives are the primary source. The FHWA study found that metals and sodium concentrations in topsoil next to highways could affect ecosystem processes. FHWA analyzed runoff from 993 separate events at 31 sites in 11 states across the United States to determine the range of composition of highway stormwater runoff. (USDOT FHWA 1990, table 3) FHWA found that the only statistically significant distinction among the events in their sample was whether they were at rural or urban sites, the urban sites producing greater pollutant concentrations, as one might expect.
150 � Transportation Statistics Annual Report 1996 Noise TABLE 7-7: CONSTITUENTS AND SOURCES OF HIGHWAY RUNOFF Constituent Primary sources Particulates Pavement wear, vehicles, atmosphere, maintenance Nitrogen, phosphorus Atmosphere, roadside fertilizer application Lead Leaded gasoline (auto exhaust), tire wear (lead oxide filler material), lubricating oil and grease, bearing wear Zinc Tire wear (filler material), motor oil (stabilizing additive), grease Iron Autobody rust, steel highway structures (e.g., guard rails), moving engine parts Copper Metal plating, bearing and bushing wear, moving engine parts, brake lining wear, fungicides and insecticides applied by maintenance operations Cadmium Tire wear (filler material), insecticide application Chromium Metal plating, moving engine parts, brake lining wear Nickel Diesel fuel and gasoline (exhaust), lubricating oil, metal plating, bushing wear, brake lining wear, asphalt paving Manganese Moving engine parts Bromide Exhaust Cyanide Anticake compound (ferric ferrocyanide, Prussian Blue or sodium ferrocyanide, Yellow Prussiate of Soda) used to keep deicing salt granular Sodium, calcium Deicing salts, grease Chlorine Deicing salts Sulfate Roadway beds, fuel, deicing salts Petroleum Spills, leaks or blow-by of motor lubricants, antifreeze and hydraulic fluids, asphalt surface leachate Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), pesticides Spraying of highway rights-of-way, background atmospheric deposition, PCB catalyst in synthetic tires Pathogenic bacteria (indicators) Soil, litter, bird droppings, and trucks hauling livestok and stockyard waste Rubber Tire wear SOURCE: U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal Highway Administration, Sources and Migration of Highway Runoff Pollutants, Technical Summary of Report No. FHWA/RD-84/060 (Washington, DC: 1987). The transportation system is a pervasive source of noise in the United States. Intrusive noise—unwanted sound—is considered a form of pollution that can degrade the quality of life for those exposed. Sound is most often measured on a nonlinear scale in units of decibels. An adjusted scale, the A-weighted scale, emphasizes sound frequencies that people hear best. The measurement units in this scale are A-weighted decibels (dBA). On this scale, a 10-dBA increase in sound level is generally perceived by humans as a doubling of sound. Examples of sound sources and their typical noise levels are presented in figure 7-12. The localized occurrence of noise makes it difficult to study national trends. Noise levels can vary drastically from site to site depending on noise sources, structures or natural terrain that block noise, and other factors. According to one estimate in the early 1980s, however, 37 per-
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Bureau of Transportation Statistics
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U.S. DEPARTMENT OF TRANSPORTATION F
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5 THE STATE OF TRANSPORTATION STATI
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List of Figures PART I: THE STATE O
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9 AN INTERNATIONAL COMPARISON OF TR
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8 TRANSPORTATION AND AIR QUALITY: A
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well as the condition and performan
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cance of transportation is comparab
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U.S. society over the lifetime of p
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and compile statistical information
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onmental impacts focus on individua
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Angeles recorded 208 unhealthful da
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Part I The State of the Transportat
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4 � Transportation Statistics Ann
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10 � Transportation Statistics An
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To capture the rich interplay betwe
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Tables 2-1 and 2-2 present transpor
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kinds of transportation services co
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counted as products of the manufact
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worth of industrial output to final
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Measures of Transportation’s Impo
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New car Used car Gas and oil Gas ta
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Vehicle Operating Costs Vehicle pur
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Chapter 2 Transportation and the Ec
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federal funds spent on transit, rai
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The total collections from all thes
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classified under the industry in wh
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The airline industry is using fewer
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that businesses that once depended
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Millions of current dollars Annual
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C H A P T E R T H R E E TRANSPORTAT
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Risk exposure means that the more a
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fatality rate will continue to decl
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more than $14 billion in health car
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in terms of fatalities per distance
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that figure had dropped to 14 perce
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ed duty/sleep periods before their
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more seats (Title 14 Code of Federa
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Drivers who ignore warning signs ar
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The lack of accurate, comprehensive
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_____. 1996. 1995 Traffic Crashes,
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Page 180 and 181: Re-use Waste tire inventory Process
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200 � Transportation Statistics A
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Index, 1980 = 100 A. CO emissions,
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Appendices
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AAMVA American Association of Motor
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ISTEA Intermodal Surface Transporta
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U.S. to Metric Length (approximate)
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A Aboveground storage tanks, xxi, 1
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C CAA. See Clean Air Act CAAA. See
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Energy efficiency combination truck
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evenues, 53-56 subsidies paid to op
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Malaysia emissions control efforts,
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energy demand projections, 95 exter
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Tires burning, 158 disposal, xxi, 1
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physical condition and performance,
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