320 development dialogue september 2006 – carb<strong>on</strong> trading1 Freeman J. Dys<strong>on</strong>, ‘Can We C<strong>on</strong>trol Carb<strong>on</strong> Dioxidein the Atmosphere?’, Energy 2, 1977, pp. 287-291.2 Paul Faeth et al., Evaluating the Carb<strong>on</strong>Sequestrati<strong>on</strong> Benefits of Forestry Projects inDeveloping Countries, World Resources Institute/EPA, Washingt<strong>on</strong>, 1994; Sandra Brown et al., Carb<strong>on</strong>Sequestrati<strong>on</strong> Final Evaluati<strong>on</strong>: Final Report toCARE Guatemala for PNO3 Agroforestry Project,Winrock Internati<strong>on</strong>al, Arlingt<strong>on</strong>, VA, 1999. Theproject also featured the first ever ‘additi<strong>on</strong>ality’analysis; that is, an analysis that claimed the projectdeserved carb<strong>on</strong> credits because it would not havehappened without the sp<strong>on</strong>soring corporati<strong>on</strong>’sc<strong>on</strong>cern about climate change. See Mark Trexleret al., ‘Forestry as a Global Warming Mitigati<strong>on</strong>Strategy: An Analysis of the Guatemala Carb<strong>on</strong>Sequestrati<strong>on</strong> Forestry Project’, World ResourcesInstitute, Washingt<strong>on</strong>, 1989.3 See www.careusa.org/careswork/project.asp.4 World Rainforest Movement Bulletin No. 37, August2000, available at www.wrm.org.uy/bulletin/37/Camerica.html; and www.careusa.org/careswork/project.asp. Guatemala Agroforestry estimates100 t<strong>on</strong>nes of carb<strong>on</strong> sequestered per hectare forforests and 30 t<strong>on</strong>nes for regrowth.5 Brown et al., op. cit. supra note 2.6 World Bank, Guatemala – Integrated Managementof Natural Resources in the Western Altiplano(MIRNA). Project Appraisal Document, World Bank,Washingt<strong>on</strong>, 2001.7 Larry Lohmann, ‘Democracy or Carbocracy?Intellectual Corrupti<strong>on</strong> and the Future of the<strong>Climate</strong> Debate’, Corner House Briefing No. 24,2001, pp. 36-44, http://www.thecornerhouse.org.uk.8 Brown et al., op. cit. supra note 2.9 Verónica Vidal, La Aplicaci<strong>on</strong> de Politicas sobreCambio Climatico en el Sector Forestal del Ecuador,Memoria de Investigación Doctorado en GestiónAmbiental y Ec<strong>on</strong>omía Ecológica, Aut<strong>on</strong>omousUniversity of Barcel<strong>on</strong>a, October 1999.10 Since 1994, PROFAFOR has arranged forestati<strong>on</strong>c<strong>on</strong>tracts in the provinces of the Ecuadorian Sierra:Imbabura, Pichincha, Chimborazo, Cañar, Azuayand Loja. It has also signed c<strong>on</strong>tracts in coastalprovinces, in the buffer z<strong>on</strong>e of the Mache-ChindulEcological Reserve within the polyg<strong>on</strong> formed by ElCarmen, Pedernales, Cojimíes, Muisne, Atacames,Bilsa and Quinindé – that is to say, in the north ofthe province of Manabi and in the south of theprovince of Esmeraldas.11 Robert Hofstede, ‘Impactos Ecológicos dePlantaci<strong>on</strong>es Forestales’, in Robert Hofstede et al.,Geografía, Ecología y Forestación de la Sierra Altadel Ecuador: Revisión de Literatura, Editorial AbyaYala, Ecuador, 1998. See also Robert Hofstede, LaImportancia Hídrica Del Páramo y Aspectos de SuManejo, EcoPar, August 1997.12 Vidal, op. cit. supra note 9.13 G. Medina et al., ‘El Páramo como Espacio deMitigación de Carb<strong>on</strong>o Atmosférico, Serie Páramo,1’, GTP/Abya Yala, Quito, 1999, quoted in Ver<strong>on</strong>icaVidal, ‘Impactos de la Aplicación de Políticas sobreCambio Climático en la Forestación del Páramo deEcuador’, Ecología Política, No. 18, 1999, pp. 49-54.14 See http://www.stichtingface.nl.15 Ibid.16 See also C. Borga et al., Plantas Nativas paraReforestación en el Ecuador, Fundación Natura,Quito, 1980.17 See http://www.stichtingface.nl.18 Mary Milne, ‘Transacti<strong>on</strong> Costs of Forest Carb<strong>on</strong>Projects’, Center for Internati<strong>on</strong>al ForestryResearch, available at http://www.une.edu.au/febl/Ec<strong>on</strong>omics/carb<strong>on</strong>/CC05.PDF.19 M<strong>on</strong>tserrat Alban and Maria Arguello, Un Análisisde los Impactos Sociales y Ec<strong>on</strong>ómicos de losProyectos de Fijación de Carb<strong>on</strong>o en el Ecuador: ElCaso de PROFAFOR-FACE, Internati<strong>on</strong>al Institutefor Envir<strong>on</strong>ment and Development, L<strong>on</strong>d<strong>on</strong>, 2004.20 The agreement was signed using as a reference adocument from the property registry and some falsetitle deeds.21 Harald Eraker, ‘CO 2 l<strong>on</strong>ialism: Norwegian TreePlantati<strong>on</strong>s, Carb<strong>on</strong> Credits and Land C<strong>on</strong>flicts inUganda’, NorWatch/The Future in Our Hands, Oslo,2000.22 NORAD, letter to NorWatch, 30 March 2000.23 Trygve Refsdal in teleph<strong>on</strong>e c<strong>on</strong>versati<strong>on</strong> withHarald Eraker, March 2000.24 Ibid.25 B. Koppers, Social Impact Assessment of theProposed Natural Forest Resources Managementand C<strong>on</strong>servati<strong>on</strong> Program, K C<strong>on</strong>sult, Oslo,October 1999.26 D. N. Byarugaba, Commissi<strong>on</strong>er for Forestry,‘Utilisati<strong>on</strong> of Bukaleba Forest Reserve’, 25 January2000. An MP, Bunya West, wrote an open letterdated the same day which reacted harshly to aproposed soluti<strong>on</strong> for the land c<strong>on</strong>flict put forwardby a parliamentarian from the district <strong>on</strong> behalfof Norwegian and German c<strong>on</strong>cessi<strong>on</strong>aires. Theproposal entailed that while those <strong>on</strong>ly engaged infisheries could keep a landing site for fishing boats,other intruders had to leave the reserve by the endof July that year.
offsets – the fossil ec<strong>on</strong>omy’s new arena of c<strong>on</strong>flict 32127 John R. W. Aluma, ‘Report <strong>on</strong> Envir<strong>on</strong>ment ImpactAssessment of the Management Plan for BukalebaForest Reserve under Busoga Forestry CompanyLimited’, c<strong>on</strong>sultant’s report, September 1999.28 The company’s envir<strong>on</strong>mental impact assessment,too, has noted the fears of local people: ‘The [local]communities have expressed very str<strong>on</strong>g desireto be permitted to c<strong>on</strong>tinue to stay there [in thereserve] as it would be extremely difficult to findalternative locati<strong>on</strong>s and activities for livelihoods.’Yet the summary of the impact assessment statesthat the farmers and fishermen ‘c<strong>on</strong>sider the projectas a positive socio-ec<strong>on</strong>omic development’ for thearea. Ibid.29 Koppers, op. cit supra note 25.30 Nsita Steve Amooti, Forest Officer, ‘Field Visit toBukaleba Forest Reserve’, 24 November 1999.31 According to <strong>on</strong>e report, farmers must also pay acash rent ranging from 10,000 to 85,000 Ugandanshillings per hectare, at a time when Tree Farmsis <strong>on</strong>ly paying 5,000 shillings per year to theauthorities for every hectare planted with trees.Ibid.32 Koppers, op. cit supra note 25.33 Amooti, op. cit. supra note 30.34 Odd Ivar Løvhaugen, email to Harald Eraker, 20January 2000.35 Intergovernmental Panel <strong>on</strong> <strong>Climate</strong> <strong>Change</strong>,Special Report: Land Use, Land-Use <strong>Change</strong>, andForestry, Draft Summary for Policymakers, Oxford,Oxford University Press, 2000.36 Koppers, op. cit supra note 25.37 Trygve Refsdal, email to Harald Eraker, 24 March2000.38 As noted in the previous secti<strong>on</strong>, FACE Foundati<strong>on</strong>(Forests Absorbing Carb<strong>on</strong>-Dioxide Emissi<strong>on</strong>s)c<strong>on</strong>tributes financially to the ‘reforestati<strong>on</strong>’ of about150,000 hectares worldwide. FACE is an initiative ofthe Dutch Electricity Generati<strong>on</strong> Board.39 According to a Societé Générale de Surveillance(SGS) assessment report d<strong>on</strong>e in 2001, the projectis expected to result in an increase in the averagestorage capacity of 3.73 milli<strong>on</strong> t<strong>on</strong>nes of carb<strong>on</strong>dioxide over its 99-year lifespan. SGS is theworld’s largest inspecti<strong>on</strong>, verificati<strong>on</strong> and testingorganisati<strong>on</strong>.40 New Visi<strong>on</strong>, M<strong>on</strong>day, 15 April 2002. New Visi<strong>on</strong> isUganda’s leading daily newspaper.41 Chris Lang, ‘Uganda: Face Foundati<strong>on</strong>, Carb<strong>on</strong>C<strong>on</strong>flict and FSC Certificati<strong>on</strong>’, World RainforestMovement Bulletin 101, December 2005, www.wrm.org.uy.42 New Visi<strong>on</strong>, 30 June 2004.43 Miriam van Heist, Land Unit Map of Mount Elg<strong>on</strong>Nati<strong>on</strong>al Park, IUCN technical report, Gland,unpublished, 1994.44 Lang, op. cit supra note 41.45 Axel P. Gosseries, ‘The Legal Architecture of JointImplementati<strong>on</strong>: What Do We Learn from the PilotPhase?’ New York University Envir<strong>on</strong>mental LawJournal 7, 1999, pp. 99-100.46 Michael Dutschke and Axel Michaelowa, ‘JointImplementati<strong>on</strong> as a Development Policy – The Caseof Costa Rica’, HWWA Discussi<strong>on</strong> Paper No. 49, 1997.47 M. Alfaro et al., ‘Evaluación del Sector Forestalde Costa Rica para la Mitigación del CambioClimático en el Marco del MDL: Informe Final’,Proyecto Bosques y Cambio Climático en AméricaCentral, Organización de las Naci<strong>on</strong>es Unidas parala Agricultura y la Alimentación (FAO), ComisiónCentroamericana de Ambiente y Desarrollo(CCAD), San José, Costa Rica, 2003.48 ‘The Marrakesh Accords and the MarrakeshResoluti<strong>on</strong>’, www.unfccc.int/cop7/documents/accords_draft.pdf.49 Alfaro et al., op. cit supra note 47.50 Ibid.51 At present most of the timber c<strong>on</strong>sumed by thecountry comes from wooded grasslands. Forexample, in the year 2001 al<strong>on</strong>e, approximately260,000 cubic metres of timber were legallyextracted from some 170,000 hectares of woodedgrasslands, amounting to 3 per cent of the nati<strong>on</strong>alterritory (Estado de la Nación, San Jose, 2003).52 See Paul Harremoës et al., The Precauti<strong>on</strong>aryPrinciple in the 20 th Century: Late Less<strong>on</strong>s fromEarly Warnings, Earthscan, L<strong>on</strong>d<strong>on</strong>, 2002.53 See, for example, P. B. Reich et al., ‘NitrogenLimitati<strong>on</strong> C<strong>on</strong>strains Sustainability of EcosystemResp<strong>on</strong>se to CO 2 ’, Nature 440, 13 April 2006, pp.922-925; D. A. Stainforth et al., ‘Uncertainty inPredicti<strong>on</strong>s of the <strong>Climate</strong> Resp<strong>on</strong>se to Rising Levelsof <strong>Green</strong>house Gases’, Nature 433, 27 January 2005,pp.403-07; W. Knorr et al., ‘L<strong>on</strong>g-Term Sensitivityof Soil Carb<strong>on</strong> Turnover to Warming’, Nature 433,20 January 2005, pp. 298–302; D. Read et al., TheRole of Land Carb<strong>on</strong> Sinks in Mitigating Global<strong>Climate</strong> <strong>Change</strong>, Royal Society, L<strong>on</strong>d<strong>on</strong>, 2001; R.Gill et al., ‘N<strong>on</strong>linear Grassland Resp<strong>on</strong>ses to Pastand Future Atmospheric CO 2 ’, Nature 417, 16 May2002, pp. 279–283; J. G. Canadell et al., ‘Quantifying,Understanding and Managing the Carb<strong>on</strong> Cycle inthe Next Decades’, Climatic <strong>Change</strong> 67, 2–3, 2004,pp. 147–160; R. A. Hought<strong>on</strong>, ‘Counting TerrestrialSources and Sinks of Carb<strong>on</strong>’, Climatic <strong>Change</strong> 48,200, pp. 525-534; Y. Pan et al., ‘New Estimates of
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