Migrant Smuggling Data and Research

Inadequate attention is currently also paid to how cultural traits impact
on the smuggling process. Existing research indicates that the cultural and ethnic
factors play a major role in the strategies adopted and that the presence of ethnic
communities in the destination country can act as drivers for irregular migration.
Less however is known about their role in the context of the movement itself.
The smuggling routes from and via North Africa to Spain and Italy or to Turkey
and then Greece have catered for the same population – mainly sub-Saharan
African young men from a wide array of countries of East, West and Central
Africa. These routes have only rarely been used by migrants from Asia (such as
Pakistanis or Indians). The routes to North Africa and then Italy, Spain or Malta
are occasionally used by families with children, but overall this is rarely the case
(Triandafyllidou and Maroukis, 2012). The route from South Asia (Pakistan,
Bangladesh and Afghanistan) via the Islamic Republic of Iran, Turkey and then
Greece is used by young men from these countries and to a large extent by
Afghan families; however, families among Pakistani and Bangladeshi are not
encountered (Triandafyllidou and Maroukis, 2012). The role of consent and trust
are likely to play a major role within this context. Existing data on smugglers
reveal also little about the interconnection between the different nationalities
within the smuggling business itself. In their review of Europol’s activities,
Carrera and Guild conclude that “the nationalities of the smugglers is puzzling”;
on the basis of the available data smuggling groups emerge as disparate groups,
with little connection to one another, often with little in common and without a
common language. They speculate that it might be that specific nationalities are
linked with specific services (Carrera and Guild, 2016).
The recent militarization of the fight against migrant smuggling in Europe,
primarily triggered by the deployment of NATO vessels in the Aegean Sea, is likely
to open new lines of thought and cut across a series of disciplines, although it
may not prove much more effective than current approaches (Triandafyllidou,
forthcoming). More than ever, the doctrine on migrant smuggling has come
closer to the discourse on the war on terror. At the same time, growing fears
about the use of the main smuggling paths by Islamic State fighters to enter
Western European countries and spread violence has further fuelled on the
debate between securitization and human rights. Within this wider context of
fear, insecurity and geopolitical turmoil, the recent decision by the European
countries to return to Turkey all irregular migrants and potential asylum seekers
crossing into the European Union through the Greek–Turkish borders is likely
to have repercussions of a much wider breadth. In the context of asylum and
migration, it may generate new flows of people in search of basic human security;
and at the same time open up new “business opportunities” for both smuggling
and criminal networks (Triandafyllidou, forthcoming). It is also likely, however,
to start a new chapter on human rights (also Baird, 2013b). The danger that
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5. Europe