Migrant Smuggling Data and Research

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“smuggled refugees” in China and South-East Asia (Han, 2013; Song, 2013) and unaccompanied North Korean minors in China (McPhee, 2014). While the studies on the Chinese snakeheads have many implications for North Korean migrant smuggling that present much resemblance in smuggling operations by Christian missionaries, scholars working on Japan still focus on the traditional roles of yakuza (Friman, 2013; Jones et al., 2011) in the smuggling and trafficking of women from Thailand to Japan in Japan’s sex industry. Research on migrant smuggling in Japan has evolved over the past decade. Early research dealt with ethnic Koreans illegally entering post-war Japan from 1946 until the 1970s (Morris-Suzuki, 2006). In recent years, studies focus on Chinese and Vietnamese migrants. Many claim that migrants were smuggled into Japan under the guise of education or training, or what was considered as “back door” or “side door” immigration (Bélanger et al., 2011; Friman, 2013; Liu-Farrer, 2011; Peck, 1998; Sheng and Bax, 2012; Yamamoto, 2010). This was an unintended consequence of the Government of Japan’s decision to expand visa categories to include student visas, among others, in a bid to address labour shortages in the late 1980s (Yamamoto, 2010). As the student visa application process became more stringent, Sheng and Bax (2012) found that smuggling fees associated with self-financed study in Japan have decreased. New topics for research on migrant smuggling continuously emerge. Secondary migration of North Koreans to North America or Western Europe involves the dual nationality of North Koreans (Song, 2015a; Wolman, 2012). North Koreans exploit their dual nationality to acquire South Korean citizenship and passport and travel to the United Kingdom, for example, to apply refugee status. Some of the asylum applicants are not even North Koreans, but ethnically Korean Chinese citizens. Studies on interregional brokered marriage migration between South-East and North-East Asia present different stages of brokered marriages from elements of human trafficking to “sham marriages” to obtain citizenships (Cheng and Choo, 2015; Davin, 2007; Jones, 2012; Nathan, 2013; Song, 2015b; van Liempt, 2014). Internal marriage migration in China also shows similar trends in marriage fraud (Liu et al., 2014). Conclusion and ways forward Research reviewed in this chapter does not represent the reality of migrant smuggling in and out of the region. It is only a fraction of what is actually happening on the ground. There are significant limitations on data collection and regional cooperation against people smuggling in the region due to the geopolitical power imbalance and ongoing security concerns. China is too big 256 10. North-East Asia
not to be dominant in the region. North Korea and South Korea are still at war and, therefore, any unauthorized cross-border movements between the two are inherently military and political. The only way North Koreans can be free is through illegal border crossings to China. South Korea and Japan have potential to develop studies on migrant smuggling, as both share the same concerns on economic migrant smuggling from less developed regions and possible mass exodus from North Korea. Their shared history of colonial period and wartime atrocity, however, has been a blocking factor for more rigorous academic collaboration. Mongolia and the Russian Federation have research potential in the long run. Building research and institutional capacity would have to go in hand with regional cooperation as the number of regular and irregular migrants grows and reaches a tipping point. References Bélanger, D. et al. 2011 From Foreign Trainees to Unauthorized Workers: Vietnamese Migrant Workers in Japan, Asian and Pacific Migration Journal, 20(1):31–53. Butler, K. 2009 North Korean bride trafficking: When escape becomes bondage, ChristianHeadlines.com, 7 May. Available from www. christianheadlines.com/news/north-korean-bride-trafficking-whenescape-becomes-bondage-11603283.html Chan, E. and A. Schloenhardt 2007 North Korean Refugees and International Refugee Law. International Journal of Refugee Law, 19(2):215–245. Cheng, M.C.C. and H.Y. Choo 2015 Women’s Migration for Domestic Work and Cross-Border Marriage in East and Southeast Asia: Reproducing Domesticity, Contesting Citizenship. Sociology Compass, 9(8):654–677. Chin, J.K. 2003 Reducing Irregular Migration from China. International Migration, 41(3):49–72. Migrant Smuggling Data and Research: A global review of the emerging evidence base 257
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Migrant Smuggling Data and Research
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Migrant Smuggling Data and Research
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on migrant smuggling and irregular
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Trafficking (UN.GIFT) and a member
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Marie McAuliffe is the newly appoin
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Ramesh Sunman is a research officer
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1 REPORT OVERVIEW Marie McAuliffe a
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disrupt the activities of migrant s
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Financial motives are central to th
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Complexities of smuggling Part of t
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physical and mental harm, and somet
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Probably the best data available re
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Finally, it could be argued that co
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(chapter 2), grey literature “ref
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on aspects of migrant smuggling, in
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References commonplace than is read
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International Organization for Migr
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Regional Mixed Migration Secretaria
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Introduction 2 WEST AND CENTRAL AFR
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Map 2.1: Map of West and Central Af
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distances in sparsely populated are
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down by nationality. 6 These entrie
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Figure 2.1: Asylum applications lau
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qualitative data often contain deta
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Investigative journalism A substant
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and terrorism are mentioned in the
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Ethnographic research and policy re
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Conclusion and ways forward Migrati
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Altai Consulting 2013 Mixed Migrati
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2007b Unauthorized migration from A
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Global Initiative Against Transnati
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Marie, C.-V. 2004 Preventing Illega
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Triulzi, A. 2013 “Like a plate of
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Table 3.1: Signatories of the Proto
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smuggling, most of which focus on S
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Somalia, Eritrea, Ethiopia and Djib
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Smuggler services and networks The
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not view themselves as victims of a
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to air travel. Although travelling
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identified along the routes to the
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collecting data on irregular migrat
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Remaining data available online inc
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informant interviews and in-depth i
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• Risk of abduction and trafficki
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human trafficking, but also inform
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De Regt, M. and M. Tafesse 2015 Dep
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2013a Health Vulnerabilities Study
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United Nations High Commissioner fo
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Mediterranean routes passing throug
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The dynamics of smuggling As seen i
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Key locations There is much to sugg
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smuggler once in the destination co
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increased between 2014 and 2015, wh
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Figure 4.2: Irregular arrivals on t
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In terms of research focused on smu
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perspective of the migration dynami
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Global Initiative against Transnati
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Reitano, T., L. Adal and M. Shaw 20
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of Unauthorized Entry and Residence
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(c) Eastern Mediterranean route, fr
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nationals of UNSC resolution 1244-a
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Figure 5.1: Smuggling routes into a
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Travel by air through falsified doc
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Czech Republic, for instance, do no
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Next to the lack of comparable and
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of Austria (FPG), n.d.; Federal Act
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smuggling within the wider frame of
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critique, as the overall number rem
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Inadequate attention is currently a
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Bilger, V., M. Hoffmann and M. Jand
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Europol 2011 Illegal immigrant smug
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Harding, L. (and agencies) 2015 Hun
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Médecins sans Frontières (MSF) 20
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Legislation 2004 Federal Aliens Law
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What makes migrant smuggling more c
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In recent years, Turkey has also ma
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Although the apprehension statistic
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Figure 6.1: Migrant routes in the M
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Review of data on migrant smuggling
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The Turkish Criminal Code (Article
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Regarding mixed survey methods usin
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4 April 2016 in line with the bilat
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Baldwin-Edwards, M. 2006 Between a
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İçduygu, A. and D.B. Aksel 2012 I
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Kirişçi, K. 2003 The Question of
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Wissink, M., F. Düvell and A. van
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esponse to the demand for migration
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(though it should be noted that a c
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Map 7.1: Afghan migration flows to
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emaining relatives with remittances
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Services to Europe include meetings
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Sediqqi said.” This discourse ill
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in Quetta 75 was specifically on tr
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• Number of departures from Afgha
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of government-funded research on mo
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First, serious thought needs to be
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Department of Immigration and Citiz
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Koser, K. and P. Marsden 2013 Migra
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Triandafyllidou, A. and T. Maroukis
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In destination countries, migrant s
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Overview of migrant smuggling in th
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Some irregular migrants from Bangla
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Costs to migrants Financial costs o
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Figure 8.3: Smuggling as a set of b
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Ultimately, the data that is collec
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Review of migrant smuggling researc
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(2012) investigated “entrepreneur
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the spike in irregular migration fr
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Page 222 and 223: McAuliffe, M. 2013 Seeking the view
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Page 248 and 249: Barron, L. and W. Lone 2015 Myanmar
Page 250 and 251: MacKinnon, I. 2008 54 Burmese migra
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Page 273 and 274: Human Rights Watch 2002 The Invisib
Page 275 and 276: Lohman, D. 1996 North Korea: A Pote
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Page 284 and 285: travel documents from friends and f
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Page 308 and 309: Jackson, J. 2015 Crossing the Darie
Page 310 and 311: Moreno Mena, J.A. and L. Niño Cont
Page 312 and 313: Robinson, B. 2010 Smuggled Masses:
Page 314 and 315: 2013 Children on the Run: Unaccompa
Page 317 and 318: 12 THE UNITED STATES Sheldon X. Zha
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During the 1980 and 1990s, Chinese
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Migrant smuggling in San Diego San
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Mexican Migration Project (MMP) Sur
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Migration, either regular or irregu
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Once migrant smuggling is framed as
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In a market environment where goods
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Most policymakers as well as border
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Cornelius, W.A. and J.M. Lewis (eds
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Roberts, B. et al. 2010 An Analysis
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17 route des Morillons, P.O. Box 17
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