Migrant Smuggling Data and Research

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Some irregular migrants from Bangladesh, Pakistan, Nepal and Sri Lanka are smuggled to Middle Eastern countries, such as Qatar, Bahrain, Oman, Libya, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates for domestic labour. These irregular migrants are predominantly women from poor socioeconomic background (Paoletti et al., 2014). Migrants reach these countries through regular channels; in the most part, smugglers arrange visitor visas for migrants and later these migrants, mostly women, end up working as housemaids (Asia Foundation, 2013; Paoletti et al., 2014). Other migrants from Bangladesh, Pakistan, Nepal and Sri Lanka, with the assistance of migrant smugglers (through falsified documents and regular travel, or irregular travel), also travel to Malaysia, Thailand and Indonesia for work. A small proportion of these migrants (in the Gulf and Asian countries) may also undertake further irregular migration to Western countries to seek asylum. There are well-documented cases of exploitation by migrant smugglers in the region. A recent example was rape and other forms of abuse committed by migrant smugglers against Rohingya from Bangladesh (UNHCR, IOM and UNODC, 2015), although some claim that this has been the norm in migrant smuggling for decades rather than the exception (Chowdhury, 2015). Smugglers in South Asia: Their numbers and types/profiles The role of smugglers is critical in shaping the flows of migrant smuggling. A key reason is that this form of migration involves multiple transit countries, overt and covert strategies, diverse authorities and actors to be negotiated with (such as for preparing fake documents), as well as various modes of transportation. Studies show that smugglers involved in irregular migration form a multiscaled and well-networked (or loose) structure starting right from the place of origin of migrants to destination countries (Raghavan and Jayasuriya, 2016a; UNODC, 2015). Smugglers working at multiple scales differ in terms of the role they play, the forms of power they can exercise and benefits/income they gain. Despite these differences, they work closely through more or less established strategies or formal/informal institutions (Saha, 2012). Pastore, Monzini and Sciortino (2006:20) argue that migrant smugglers are “little more than loose networks linking largely independent clusters of practical competencies”. Further, the number of smugglers is hard to estimate, and it has been reported that some former irregular migrants use their knowledge to become migrant smugglers (UNODC, 2015). Field research in Pakistan and Sri Lanka involving interviews with migrant smugglers highlighted multilayered networks of smugglers with more or less 192 8. South Asia
clear roles (Raghavan and Jayasuriya, 2016a). Multilayered smugglers include local village sub-agents, main agents, logistic handling agents, transit country agents and destination country agents, each performing various specific roles from motivating people for irregular migration, dealing with State authorities for fake documents to facilitating travel. In specific terms, Figure 8.2 presents types of smugglers and levels identified during fieldwork in Sri Lanka (Raghavan and Jayasuriya, 2016b). The case in India and Nepal is similar where local agents recruit migrants and the migration progressed with the support received from main and transit country agents (Paoletti et al., 2014; UNODC, 2015). However, there appears to be limited information relating to the types/profile of migrant smugglers in India, Nepal and Bangladesh. As Figure 8.2 indicates, while the hierarchical structure may exist for travel to Australia and Europe, Canadian officials stated that irregular migration to Canada from Sri Lanka did not follow a hierarchical structure and that smugglers operated among loose networks (UNODC, 2015). Figure 8.2: Multilevel structure of migrant smugglers Source: Raghavan and Jayasuriya (2016b). Migrant Smuggling Data and Research: A global review of the emerging evidence base 193
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Migrant Smuggling Data and Research
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Migrant Smuggling Data and Research
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on migrant smuggling and irregular
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Trafficking (UN.GIFT) and a member
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Marie McAuliffe is the newly appoin
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Ramesh Sunman is a research officer
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1 REPORT OVERVIEW Marie McAuliffe a
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disrupt the activities of migrant s
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Financial motives are central to th
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Complexities of smuggling Part of t
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physical and mental harm, and somet
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Probably the best data available re
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Finally, it could be argued that co
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(chapter 2), grey literature “ref
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on aspects of migrant smuggling, in
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References commonplace than is read
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International Organization for Migr
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Regional Mixed Migration Secretaria
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Introduction 2 WEST AND CENTRAL AFR
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Map 2.1: Map of West and Central Af
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distances in sparsely populated are
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down by nationality. 6 These entrie
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Figure 2.1: Asylum applications lau
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qualitative data often contain deta
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Investigative journalism A substant
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and terrorism are mentioned in the
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Ethnographic research and policy re
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Conclusion and ways forward Migrati
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Altai Consulting 2013 Mixed Migrati
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2007b Unauthorized migration from A
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Global Initiative Against Transnati
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Marie, C.-V. 2004 Preventing Illega
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Triulzi, A. 2013 “Like a plate of
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Table 3.1: Signatories of the Proto
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smuggling, most of which focus on S
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Somalia, Eritrea, Ethiopia and Djib
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Smuggler services and networks The
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not view themselves as victims of a
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to air travel. Although travelling
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identified along the routes to the
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collecting data on irregular migrat
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Remaining data available online inc
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informant interviews and in-depth i
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• Risk of abduction and trafficki
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human trafficking, but also inform
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De Regt, M. and M. Tafesse 2015 Dep
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2013a Health Vulnerabilities Study
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United Nations High Commissioner fo
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Mediterranean routes passing throug
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The dynamics of smuggling As seen i
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Key locations There is much to sugg
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smuggler once in the destination co
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increased between 2014 and 2015, wh
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Figure 4.2: Irregular arrivals on t
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In terms of research focused on smu
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perspective of the migration dynami
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Global Initiative against Transnati
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Reitano, T., L. Adal and M. Shaw 20
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of Unauthorized Entry and Residence
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(c) Eastern Mediterranean route, fr
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nationals of UNSC resolution 1244-a
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Figure 5.1: Smuggling routes into a
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Travel by air through falsified doc
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Czech Republic, for instance, do no
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Next to the lack of comparable and
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of Austria (FPG), n.d.; Federal Act
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smuggling within the wider frame of
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critique, as the overall number rem
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Inadequate attention is currently a
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Bilger, V., M. Hoffmann and M. Jand
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Europol 2011 Illegal immigrant smug
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Harding, L. (and agencies) 2015 Hun
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Médecins sans Frontières (MSF) 20
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Legislation 2004 Federal Aliens Law
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What makes migrant smuggling more c
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In recent years, Turkey has also ma
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Page 158 and 159: Figure 6.1: Migrant routes in the M
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Page 162 and 163: The Turkish Criminal Code (Article
Page 164 and 165: Regarding mixed survey methods usin
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Page 168 and 169: Baldwin-Edwards, M. 2006 Between a
Page 170 and 171: İçduygu, A. and D.B. Aksel 2012 I
Page 172 and 173: Kirişçi, K. 2003 The Question of
Page 174 and 175: Wissink, M., F. Düvell and A. van
Page 176 and 177: esponse to the demand for migration
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Page 180 and 181: Map 7.1: Afghan migration flows to
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Page 192 and 193: of government-funded research on mo
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Page 196 and 197: Department of Immigration and Citiz
Page 198 and 199: Koser, K. and P. Marsden 2013 Migra
Page 200 and 201: Triandafyllidou, A. and T. Maroukis
Page 202 and 203: In destination countries, migrant s
Page 204 and 205: Overview of migrant smuggling in th
Page 208 and 209: Costs to migrants Financial costs o
Page 210 and 211: Figure 8.3: Smuggling as a set of b
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Page 216 and 217: (2012) investigated “entrepreneur
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Page 220 and 221: Davin, E. and N. Majidi 2009 Study
Page 222 and 223: McAuliffe, M. 2013 Seeking the view
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Page 232 and 233: Lyneham, 2014). The following case
Page 234 and 235: The summary of data contained in th
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Page 238 and 239: Data on smuggling of asylum seekers
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Page 242 and 243: Given extremely limited household i
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Page 248 and 249: Barron, L. and W. Lone 2015 Myanmar
Page 250 and 251: MacKinnon, I. 2008 54 Burmese migra
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10 NORTH-EAST ASIA Jiyoung Song Int
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The following sections provide the
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Figure 10:1: Destination countries
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a three-tiered structure: (a) “bi
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Problems with accessibility Given t
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smugglers as criminals have evolved
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2003; Li, 2012; Silverstone, 2011).
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not to be dominant in the region. N
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Human Rights Watch 2002 The Invisib
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Lohman, D. 1996 North Korea: A Pote
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n.d. Voluntary Reporting System on
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庄国土 1997 对近 20 年来
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李琦 . 2011 吉林中朝边
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travel documents from friends and f
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and 2011). This chapter provides an
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journalistic reports suggest many o
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Some Cuban nationals and residents
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north, but also within the continen
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migration flows. In terms of offici
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esearch has also emerged on the top
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the region in a fashion that may al
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migratory corridor. Brigden (2015)
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security mechanisms, efforts to eng
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Casillas, R. 2007 Una Vida Discreta
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Evans, M. and J. Franzblau (eds.) 2
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Jackson, J. 2015 Crossing the Darie
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Moreno Mena, J.A. and L. Niño Cont
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Robinson, B. 2010 Smuggled Masses:
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2013 Children on the Run: Unaccompa
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12 THE UNITED STATES Sheldon X. Zha
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a long history of admitting large n
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During the 1980 and 1990s, Chinese
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Migrant smuggling in San Diego San
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Mexican Migration Project (MMP) Sur
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Migration, either regular or irregu
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Once migrant smuggling is framed as
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In a market environment where goods
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Most policymakers as well as border
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Cornelius, W.A. and J.M. Lewis (eds
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Roberts, B. et al. 2010 An Analysis
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17 route des Morillons, P.O. Box 17
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