Migrant Smuggling Data and Research

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In recent years, Turkey has also made progress towards the better management of migration and curbing irregularity of migrants. The enactment of the Law on Foreigners and International Protection in April 2013 introduced a new legal and institutional framework for a migration and asylum management system with enhanced police and judicial cooperation in line with the European Union standards, thus allowing non-Europeans applying for asylum to acquire temporary protection status. A series of twinning projects within the last decade were implemented on irregular migration issues, including integrated border management and combating migrant smuggling. In addition to managing irregular migration issues, Turkey is also cooperating with the International Organization for Migration (IOM) in combating human trafficking. 28 Additionally, Turkey participated in the intergovernmental dialogue initiatives to manage irregular migration and human smuggling, including the Hague Process on Refugees and Migration and the Bali Process on People Smuggling on People Smuggling, Trafficking in Persons and Related Transnational Crime. On the international and regional front, readmission agreements are effective instruments in managing irregular migration and encouraging States to take serious measures against this phenomenon. To this end, Turkey signed Readmission Agreements with some source (Syrian Arab Republic, 29 Kyrgyzstan, Ukraine, Pakistan, Russian Federation, Nigeria and Yemen) and some destination countries (Greece, Romania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Republic of Moldova, Belarus and Montenegro) in the past to fight against irregular migration. Furthermore, Turkey and the European Union signed a readmission agreement in 2013, which necessitates the return of undocumented migrants who enter the European Union through Turkey. 30 The European Union–Turkey readmission agreement is expected to come into force as of June 2016. Obviously, the readmission agreement will bring more migrants back to Turkey. In return, Turkey demands visa liberalization for Turkish citizens in the Schengen zone and more burden-sharing with the European Union on irregular migration as most apprehended cases in Eastern Europe transit through Turkey by using either sea or land routes. Another significant regional initiative on migrant smuggling was the Silk Route Partnership for Migration that was adopted in 2013 with the participation of Turkey, Afghanistan, Bangladesh, China, Islamic Republic of Iran, Iraq and Pakistan. Consequently, it was decided that these countries would cooperate closely to prevent irregular migration, as well as combat migrant smuggling and trafficking in human beings. 28 Turkey became a member of International Organization for Migration (IOM) on 30 November 2004. 29 Readmission agreement between Turkey and the Syrian Arab Republic is not active since 2011 due to humanitarian reasons. 30 Turkey readmits its own nationals in accordance with its constitution and passport law. It also readmits aliens with valid Turkish residence permits. If it is proven that third-country nationals have departed from Turkey through unconventional methods, they will be readmitted if returned by the same or a subsequent flight in accordance with the International Civil Aviation Organization rules and practices. 140 6. Turkey
Overview of migrant smuggling in the country Turkey is certainly at the crossroads for irregular migrant flows originating in the Middle East and beyond. It also acts as an active hub of migrant smuggling where human smugglers operate across three old continents – Africa, Asia and Europe – and throughout the Mediterranean basin. As classified in Frontex reports, there are three main smuggling routes in the greater Mediterranean basin: (a) Western Mediterranean route, from North Africa and Western African coast to Iberian Peninsula; (b) Central Mediterranean route, from parts of Africa to Italy and Malta; and (c) Eastern Mediterranean route, from Middle East and Turkey targeting Greece, Cyprus and Bulgaria both by sea and by land near Evros River (Frontex, 2013; 2014). Until 2014, the majority of the flows to Europe were coming through the Central Mediterranean route, and specifically through Libya (Frontex, 2013). In 2015, it shifted to the Eastern Mediterranean where Turkey is located right at the centre as a transit zone – with more than 1 million arrivals in the European Union, including men, women and children. Some migrants and/ or migrant smugglers coming from the other two routes also preferred this third route through Turkey to make entry to Europe. 31 Therefore, due to its location, irregular migrants transiting Turkey with human smugglers travel not only from south to north but also along the east-west axis – from Bangladesh, Pakistan, Islamic Republic of Iran, Turkey and ultimately reaching Europe (ICMPD, 2015). In order to take a clear snapshot on migrant smuggling flows and trends in Turkey and the Middle East, this chapter refers to the apprehension figures in Turkey since the actual number of flows on human smuggling is not available. Between the mid-1990s and early 2000s, the number of apprehended cases of irregular migrants increased from 11,000 in 1995 to 94,000 in 2000 (İçduygu, 2004). Between 2001 and 2013, with some fluctuations over the years, an average of 56,232 irregular migrants was apprehended annually from different nationalities (İçduygu and Aksel, 2015). 32 There is clear evidence suggesting the sudden rise of irregular migration in Turkey after 2011, apprehensions reaching as high as nearly 150,000 by 2015. 33 Recent research findings on irregular migration in Turkey inform that not all these apprehension cases involved migrant smuggling though. It is estimated that only half of those apprehended are subjected to smuggling (İçduygu and Yükseker, 2012). 31 See ICMPD’s Report (2015) funded by the European Commission for a detailed analysis of how Nigerian nationals used air travel through Turkey to Bulgaria. 32 It should be noted, however, that it is very likely that the scale of irregular migration into and through Turkey and the number of human smugglers operating in the region is much higher than the apprehensions. 33 Directorate General of Migration Management (DGMM) of Turkey. Homepage (n.d.) (in Turkish). Available from www.goc.gov.tr/icerik6/duzensiz-goc_363_378_4710_icerik Migrant Smuggling Data and Research: A global review of the emerging evidence base 141
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Migrant Smuggling Data and Research
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Migrant Smuggling Data and Research
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on migrant smuggling and irregular
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Trafficking (UN.GIFT) and a member
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Marie McAuliffe is the newly appoin
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Ramesh Sunman is a research officer
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1 REPORT OVERVIEW Marie McAuliffe a
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disrupt the activities of migrant s
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Financial motives are central to th
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Complexities of smuggling Part of t
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physical and mental harm, and somet
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Probably the best data available re
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Finally, it could be argued that co
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(chapter 2), grey literature “ref
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on aspects of migrant smuggling, in
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References commonplace than is read
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International Organization for Migr
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Regional Mixed Migration Secretaria
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Introduction 2 WEST AND CENTRAL AFR
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Map 2.1: Map of West and Central Af
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distances in sparsely populated are
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down by nationality. 6 These entrie
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Figure 2.1: Asylum applications lau
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qualitative data often contain deta
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Investigative journalism A substant
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and terrorism are mentioned in the
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Ethnographic research and policy re
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Conclusion and ways forward Migrati
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Altai Consulting 2013 Mixed Migrati
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2007b Unauthorized migration from A
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Global Initiative Against Transnati
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Marie, C.-V. 2004 Preventing Illega
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Triulzi, A. 2013 “Like a plate of
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Table 3.1: Signatories of the Proto
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smuggling, most of which focus on S
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Somalia, Eritrea, Ethiopia and Djib
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Smuggler services and networks The
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not view themselves as victims of a
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to air travel. Although travelling
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identified along the routes to the
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collecting data on irregular migrat
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Remaining data available online inc
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informant interviews and in-depth i
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• Risk of abduction and trafficki
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human trafficking, but also inform
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De Regt, M. and M. Tafesse 2015 Dep
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2013a Health Vulnerabilities Study
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United Nations High Commissioner fo
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Mediterranean routes passing throug
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The dynamics of smuggling As seen i
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Page 126 and 127: Figure 5.1: Smuggling routes into a
Page 128 and 129: Travel by air through falsified doc
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Page 132 and 133: Next to the lack of comparable and
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Page 140 and 141: Inadequate attention is currently a
Page 142 and 143: Bilger, V., M. Hoffmann and M. Jand
Page 144 and 145: Europol 2011 Illegal immigrant smug
Page 146 and 147: Harding, L. (and agencies) 2015 Hun
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Page 150 and 151: Legislation 2004 Federal Aliens Law
Page 152 and 153: What makes migrant smuggling more c
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Page 158 and 159: Figure 6.1: Migrant routes in the M
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Page 168 and 169: Baldwin-Edwards, M. 2006 Between a
Page 170 and 171: İçduygu, A. and D.B. Aksel 2012 I
Page 172 and 173: Kirişçi, K. 2003 The Question of
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Page 180 and 181: Map 7.1: Afghan migration flows to
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Page 192 and 193: of government-funded research on mo
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Page 196 and 197: Department of Immigration and Citiz
Page 198 and 199: Koser, K. and P. Marsden 2013 Migra
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Page 202 and 203: In destination countries, migrant s
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Overview of migrant smuggling in th
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Some irregular migrants from Bangla
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Costs to migrants Financial costs o
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Figure 8.3: Smuggling as a set of b
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Ultimately, the data that is collec
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Review of migrant smuggling researc
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(2012) investigated “entrepreneur
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the spike in irregular migration fr
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Davin, E. and N. Majidi 2009 Study
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McAuliffe, M. 2013 Seeking the view
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United Nations High Commissioner fo
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This conceptualization has been evi
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The growing profile of migrant smug
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For example, Malaysia currently hos
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Lyneham, 2014). The following case
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The summary of data contained in th
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The transnational criminal focus ap
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Data on smuggling of asylum seekers
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Data on abuse, exploitation and dea
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Given extremely limited household i
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Australia. The remaining research w
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elsewhere in the region appears to
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Barron, L. and W. Lone 2015 Myanmar
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MacKinnon, I. 2008 54 Burmese migra
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United Nations Office of Drugs and
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A.T. Gallagher (2015), “Exploitat
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10 NORTH-EAST ASIA Jiyoung Song Int
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The following sections provide the
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Figure 10:1: Destination countries
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a three-tiered structure: (a) “bi
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Problems with accessibility Given t
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smugglers as criminals have evolved
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2003; Li, 2012; Silverstone, 2011).
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not to be dominant in the region. N
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Human Rights Watch 2002 The Invisib
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Lohman, D. 1996 North Korea: A Pote
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n.d. Voluntary Reporting System on
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庄国土 1997 对近 20 年来
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李琦 . 2011 吉林中朝边
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travel documents from friends and f
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and 2011). This chapter provides an
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journalistic reports suggest many o
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Some Cuban nationals and residents
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north, but also within the continen
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migration flows. In terms of offici
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esearch has also emerged on the top
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the region in a fashion that may al
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migratory corridor. Brigden (2015)
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security mechanisms, efforts to eng
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Casillas, R. 2007 Una Vida Discreta
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Evans, M. and J. Franzblau (eds.) 2
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Jackson, J. 2015 Crossing the Darie
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Moreno Mena, J.A. and L. Niño Cont
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Robinson, B. 2010 Smuggled Masses:
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2013 Children on the Run: Unaccompa
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12 THE UNITED STATES Sheldon X. Zha
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a long history of admitting large n
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During the 1980 and 1990s, Chinese
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Migrant smuggling in San Diego San
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Mexican Migration Project (MMP) Sur
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Migration, either regular or irregu
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Once migrant smuggling is framed as
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In a market environment where goods
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Most policymakers as well as border
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Cornelius, W.A. and J.M. Lewis (eds
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Roberts, B. et al. 2010 An Analysis
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17 route des Morillons, P.O. Box 17
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