Migrant Smuggling Data and Research

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Inadequate attention is currently also paid to how cultural traits impact on the smuggling process. Existing research indicates that the cultural and ethnic factors play a major role in the strategies adopted and that the presence of ethnic communities in the destination country can act as drivers for irregular migration. Less however is known about their role in the context of the movement itself. The smuggling routes from and via North Africa to Spain and Italy or to Turkey and then Greece have catered for the same population – mainly sub-Saharan African young men from a wide array of countries of East, West and Central Africa. These routes have only rarely been used by migrants from Asia (such as Pakistanis or Indians). The routes to North Africa and then Italy, Spain or Malta are occasionally used by families with children, but overall this is rarely the case (Triandafyllidou and Maroukis, 2012). The route from South Asia (Pakistan, Bangladesh and Afghanistan) via the Islamic Republic of Iran, Turkey and then Greece is used by young men from these countries and to a large extent by Afghan families; however, families among Pakistani and Bangladeshi are not encountered (Triandafyllidou and Maroukis, 2012). The role of consent and trust are likely to play a major role within this context. Existing data on smugglers reveal also little about the interconnection between the different nationalities within the smuggling business itself. In their review of Europol’s activities, Carrera and Guild conclude that “the nationalities of the smugglers is puzzling”; on the basis of the available data smuggling groups emerge as disparate groups, with little connection to one another, often with little in common and without a common language. They speculate that it might be that specific nationalities are linked with specific services (Carrera and Guild, 2016). The recent militarization of the fight against migrant smuggling in Europe, primarily triggered by the deployment of NATO vessels in the Aegean Sea, is likely to open new lines of thought and cut across a series of disciplines, although it may not prove much more effective than current approaches (Triandafyllidou, forthcoming). More than ever, the doctrine on migrant smuggling has come closer to the discourse on the war on terror. At the same time, growing fears about the use of the main smuggling paths by Islamic State fighters to enter Western European countries and spread violence has further fuelled on the debate between securitization and human rights. Within this wider context of fear, insecurity and geopolitical turmoil, the recent decision by the European countries to return to Turkey all irregular migrants and potential asylum seekers crossing into the European Union through the Greek–Turkish borders is likely to have repercussions of a much wider breadth. In the context of asylum and migration, it may generate new flows of people in search of basic human security; and at the same time open up new “business opportunities” for both smuggling and criminal networks (Triandafyllidou, forthcoming). It is also likely, however, to start a new chapter on human rights (also Baird, 2013b). The danger that 126 5. Europe
inviolable human rights will be trampled in an effort to combat migrant smuggling has become more than real. The axiomatic principle of non-refoulement is the first to be put to the test. Reframing the discourse on migrant smuggling in terms of human rights is a doctrinal challenge that lies imminently ahead. References Abdel Aziz, N., P. Monzini and F. Pastore 2015 The Changing Dynamics of Cross-border Human Smuggling and Trafficking in the Mediterranean. Instituto Affari Internazionali (IAI), Rome. Available from www.iai.it/sites/default/files/newmed_ monzini.pdf Alssopp, J. and M.G. Manieri 2016 The EU Anti-Smuggling Framework: Direct and indirect effects on the provision of humanitarian assistance to irregular migrants. In: Irregular Migration, Trafficking and Smuggling of Human Beings: Policy Dilemmas in the EU (S. Carrera and E. Guild, eds.), Center for European Policy Studies, Brussels, pp. 81–90. Available from www. ceps.eu/system/files/Irregular%20Migration,%20Trafficking%20 and%20SmugglingwithCovers.pdf Altai Consulting 2015 Migration Trends Across the Mediterranean: Connecting the Dots. Altai Consulting for IOM Middle East and North Africa Regional Office, Cairo. Available from http://publications.iom.int/system/ files/altai_migration_trends_accross_the_mediterranean.pdf Baird, T. 2013a Theoretical Approaches to Human Smuggling, Danish Institute for International Studies (DIIS) Working Paper 2013:10. DIIS, Copenhagen. Available from http://pure.diis.dk/ws/files/56032/ WP2013_10_ted_baird_human_smuggling_web.pdf 2013b Understanding human smuggling as a human rights issue. DIIS Policy Brief. Available from www.ciaonet.org/attachments/23794/uploads Baird, T. and I.C. van Liempt 2016 Scrutinising the double disadvantage: knowledge production in the messy field of migrant smuggling. Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 42(3):400–417. Migrant Smuggling Data and Research: A global review of the emerging evidence base 127
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Migrant Smuggling Data and Research
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Migrant Smuggling Data and Research
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on migrant smuggling and irregular
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Trafficking (UN.GIFT) and a member
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Marie McAuliffe is the newly appoin
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Ramesh Sunman is a research officer
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1 REPORT OVERVIEW Marie McAuliffe a
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disrupt the activities of migrant s
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Financial motives are central to th
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Complexities of smuggling Part of t
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physical and mental harm, and somet
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Probably the best data available re
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Finally, it could be argued that co
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(chapter 2), grey literature “ref
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on aspects of migrant smuggling, in
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References commonplace than is read
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International Organization for Migr
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Regional Mixed Migration Secretaria
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Introduction 2 WEST AND CENTRAL AFR
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Map 2.1: Map of West and Central Af
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distances in sparsely populated are
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down by nationality. 6 These entrie
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Figure 2.1: Asylum applications lau
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qualitative data often contain deta
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Investigative journalism A substant
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and terrorism are mentioned in the
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Ethnographic research and policy re
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Conclusion and ways forward Migrati
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Altai Consulting 2013 Mixed Migrati
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2007b Unauthorized migration from A
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Global Initiative Against Transnati
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Marie, C.-V. 2004 Preventing Illega
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Triulzi, A. 2013 “Like a plate of
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Table 3.1: Signatories of the Proto
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smuggling, most of which focus on S
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Somalia, Eritrea, Ethiopia and Djib
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Smuggler services and networks The
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not view themselves as victims of a
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to air travel. Although travelling
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identified along the routes to the
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collecting data on irregular migrat
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Remaining data available online inc
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informant interviews and in-depth i
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Page 110 and 111: Figure 4.2: Irregular arrivals on t
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Page 116 and 117: Global Initiative against Transnati
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Page 126 and 127: Figure 5.1: Smuggling routes into a
Page 128 and 129: Travel by air through falsified doc
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Page 142 and 143: Bilger, V., M. Hoffmann and M. Jand
Page 144 and 145: Europol 2011 Illegal immigrant smug
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Page 150 and 151: Legislation 2004 Federal Aliens Law
Page 152 and 153: What makes migrant smuggling more c
Page 154 and 155: In recent years, Turkey has also ma
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Page 158 and 159: Figure 6.1: Migrant routes in the M
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Page 170 and 171: İçduygu, A. and D.B. Aksel 2012 I
Page 172 and 173: Kirişçi, K. 2003 The Question of
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Page 180 and 181: Map 7.1: Afghan migration flows to
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• Number of departures from Afgha
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of government-funded research on mo
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First, serious thought needs to be
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Department of Immigration and Citiz
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Koser, K. and P. Marsden 2013 Migra
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Triandafyllidou, A. and T. Maroukis
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In destination countries, migrant s
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Overview of migrant smuggling in th
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Some irregular migrants from Bangla
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Costs to migrants Financial costs o
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Figure 8.3: Smuggling as a set of b
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Ultimately, the data that is collec
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Review of migrant smuggling researc
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(2012) investigated “entrepreneur
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the spike in irregular migration fr
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Davin, E. and N. Majidi 2009 Study
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McAuliffe, M. 2013 Seeking the view
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United Nations High Commissioner fo
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This conceptualization has been evi
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The growing profile of migrant smug
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For example, Malaysia currently hos
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Lyneham, 2014). The following case
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The summary of data contained in th
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The transnational criminal focus ap
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Data on smuggling of asylum seekers
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Data on abuse, exploitation and dea
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Given extremely limited household i
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Australia. The remaining research w
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elsewhere in the region appears to
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Barron, L. and W. Lone 2015 Myanmar
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MacKinnon, I. 2008 54 Burmese migra
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United Nations Office of Drugs and
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A.T. Gallagher (2015), “Exploitat
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10 NORTH-EAST ASIA Jiyoung Song Int
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The following sections provide the
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Figure 10:1: Destination countries
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a three-tiered structure: (a) “bi
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Problems with accessibility Given t
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smugglers as criminals have evolved
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2003; Li, 2012; Silverstone, 2011).
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not to be dominant in the region. N
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Human Rights Watch 2002 The Invisib
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Lohman, D. 1996 North Korea: A Pote
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n.d. Voluntary Reporting System on
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庄国土 1997 对近 20 年来
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李琦 . 2011 吉林中朝边
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travel documents from friends and f
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and 2011). This chapter provides an
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journalistic reports suggest many o
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Some Cuban nationals and residents
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north, but also within the continen
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migration flows. In terms of offici
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esearch has also emerged on the top
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the region in a fashion that may al
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migratory corridor. Brigden (2015)
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security mechanisms, efforts to eng
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Casillas, R. 2007 Una Vida Discreta
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Evans, M. and J. Franzblau (eds.) 2
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Jackson, J. 2015 Crossing the Darie
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Moreno Mena, J.A. and L. Niño Cont
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Robinson, B. 2010 Smuggled Masses:
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2013 Children on the Run: Unaccompa
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12 THE UNITED STATES Sheldon X. Zha
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a long history of admitting large n
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During the 1980 and 1990s, Chinese
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Migrant smuggling in San Diego San
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Mexican Migration Project (MMP) Sur
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Migration, either regular or irregu
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Once migrant smuggling is framed as
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In a market environment where goods
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Most policymakers as well as border
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Cornelius, W.A. and J.M. Lewis (eds
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Roberts, B. et al. 2010 An Analysis
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17 route des Morillons, P.O. Box 17
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Migrant Smuggling Data and Research

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