Migrant Smuggling Data and Research

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The fact that overland migrant smuggling out of the ECOWAS area happens in remote and insecure areas has three important implications. First, the limited government presence and control facilitates smuggling. Second, the general insecurity, coupled with harsh environmental conditions, increases migrant vulnerability. Third, the travel warnings limit possibilities for collecting data and carrying out research. For instance, many universities in Europe and North America would not allow students or faculty to carry out research in areas covered by such warnings. The countries of West and Central Africa differ in their capacity and dedication to migration management, but the relevant international legal frameworks are widely supported. The 2000 Protocol against the Smuggling of Migrants has been signed by every country except Chad, Côte d’Ivoire and Gabon. 5 Without exception, countries in the region have signed the following: (a) 2000 Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons, especially Women and Children; (b) 1951 Convention relating to the Status of Refugees; and (c) 1967 Protocol Relating to the Status of Refugees. This chapter broadly covers the countries of IOM’s West and Central Africa region, from Cabo Verde and Mauritania in the west to the Republic of the Congo in the south. However, the western areas of Angola and the Democratic Republic of the Congo can be said to be part of the same migration system and are also included where relevant. Particular routes and practices of migrant smuggling from West Africa are continuously shifting, but there is also a strong element of continuity, especially in the period since the 1990s. Although the emphasis here is on research from the past decade, older publications remain relevant to understanding the dynamics of migrant smuggling in the region. In the Francophone parts of the region, the key term for smuggler is the French equivalent passeur. The term convoyeur is also used (Andersson, 2014b; Daniel, 2008). In Anglophone West Africa, a smuggler is often referred to as a connection man, a term that alludes to the smuggler’s role as a service provider with particular networks and skills (Carling, 2006; Lucht, 2013). In the Gambia, where unauthorized migration to Europe has reached extraordinary intensity, this mode of migration is known as the back way to Europe (Chant, 2015; Jagne, 2014). 5 Among the signatories, the Republic of the Congo, Equatorial Guinea and Guinea-Bissau have not ratified the convention. 26 2. West and Central Africa
Map 2.1: Map of West and Central Africa Source: Carling, 2016. Overview of migrant smuggling in the region The primary overseas destination for migrant smuggling from West and Central Africa is Europe. There are also important flows to the Americas, Asia and other parts of Africa, as well as within the region. The number of West Africans being smuggled to Europe is impossible to determine with certainty, but certain indications are available. In 2014, almost 60,000 sub-Saharan Africans were apprehended as undocumented entrants at Europe’s external borders (Frontex, 2015). Many originated from the Horn of Africa, but more than half were from West and Central Africa. In the same year, 73,000 West and Central Africans applied for asylum in Europe. These numbers indicate that many West and Migrant Smuggling Data and Research: A global review of the emerging evidence base 27
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Page 6 and 7: on migrant smuggling and irregular
Page 8 and 9: Trafficking (UN.GIFT) and a member
Page 10 and 11: Marie McAuliffe is the newly appoin
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Page 15 and 16: 1 REPORT OVERVIEW Marie McAuliffe a
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Page 21 and 22: Complexities of smuggling Part of t
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Page 35 and 36: International Organization for Migr
Page 37 and 38: Regional Mixed Migration Secretaria
Page 39: Introduction 2 WEST AND CENTRAL AFR
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Page 51 and 52: Investigative journalism A substant
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Page 63 and 64: Global Initiative Against Transnati
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• Risk of abduction and trafficki
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human trafficking, but also inform
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De Regt, M. and M. Tafesse 2015 Dep
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2013a Health Vulnerabilities Study
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United Nations High Commissioner fo
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Mediterranean routes passing throug
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The dynamics of smuggling As seen i
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Key locations There is much to sugg
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smuggler once in the destination co
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increased between 2014 and 2015, wh
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Figure 4.2: Irregular arrivals on t
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In terms of research focused on smu
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perspective of the migration dynami
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Global Initiative against Transnati
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Reitano, T., L. Adal and M. Shaw 20
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of Unauthorized Entry and Residence
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(c) Eastern Mediterranean route, fr
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nationals of UNSC resolution 1244-a
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Figure 5.1: Smuggling routes into a
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Travel by air through falsified doc
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Czech Republic, for instance, do no
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Next to the lack of comparable and
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of Austria (FPG), n.d.; Federal Act
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smuggling within the wider frame of
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critique, as the overall number rem
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Inadequate attention is currently a
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Bilger, V., M. Hoffmann and M. Jand
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Europol 2011 Illegal immigrant smug
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Harding, L. (and agencies) 2015 Hun
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Médecins sans Frontières (MSF) 20
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Legislation 2004 Federal Aliens Law
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What makes migrant smuggling more c
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In recent years, Turkey has also ma
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Although the apprehension statistic
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Figure 6.1: Migrant routes in the M
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Review of data on migrant smuggling
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The Turkish Criminal Code (Article
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Regarding mixed survey methods usin
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4 April 2016 in line with the bilat
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Baldwin-Edwards, M. 2006 Between a
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İçduygu, A. and D.B. Aksel 2012 I
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Kirişçi, K. 2003 The Question of
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Wissink, M., F. Düvell and A. van
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esponse to the demand for migration
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(though it should be noted that a c
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Map 7.1: Afghan migration flows to
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emaining relatives with remittances
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Services to Europe include meetings
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Sediqqi said.” This discourse ill
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in Quetta 75 was specifically on tr
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• Number of departures from Afgha
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of government-funded research on mo
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First, serious thought needs to be
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Department of Immigration and Citiz
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Koser, K. and P. Marsden 2013 Migra
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Triandafyllidou, A. and T. Maroukis
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In destination countries, migrant s
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Overview of migrant smuggling in th
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Some irregular migrants from Bangla
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Costs to migrants Financial costs o
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Figure 8.3: Smuggling as a set of b
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Ultimately, the data that is collec
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Review of migrant smuggling researc
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(2012) investigated “entrepreneur
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the spike in irregular migration fr
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Davin, E. and N. Majidi 2009 Study
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McAuliffe, M. 2013 Seeking the view
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United Nations High Commissioner fo
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This conceptualization has been evi
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The growing profile of migrant smug
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For example, Malaysia currently hos
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Lyneham, 2014). The following case
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The summary of data contained in th
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The transnational criminal focus ap
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Data on smuggling of asylum seekers
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Data on abuse, exploitation and dea
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Given extremely limited household i
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Australia. The remaining research w
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elsewhere in the region appears to
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Barron, L. and W. Lone 2015 Myanmar
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MacKinnon, I. 2008 54 Burmese migra
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United Nations Office of Drugs and
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A.T. Gallagher (2015), “Exploitat
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10 NORTH-EAST ASIA Jiyoung Song Int
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The following sections provide the
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Figure 10:1: Destination countries
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a three-tiered structure: (a) “bi
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Problems with accessibility Given t
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smugglers as criminals have evolved
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2003; Li, 2012; Silverstone, 2011).
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not to be dominant in the region. N
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Human Rights Watch 2002 The Invisib
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Lohman, D. 1996 North Korea: A Pote
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n.d. Voluntary Reporting System on
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庄国土 1997 对近 20 年来
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李琦 . 2011 吉林中朝边
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travel documents from friends and f
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and 2011). This chapter provides an
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journalistic reports suggest many o
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Some Cuban nationals and residents
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north, but also within the continen
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migration flows. In terms of offici
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esearch has also emerged on the top
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the region in a fashion that may al
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migratory corridor. Brigden (2015)
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security mechanisms, efforts to eng
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Casillas, R. 2007 Una Vida Discreta
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Evans, M. and J. Franzblau (eds.) 2
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Jackson, J. 2015 Crossing the Darie
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Moreno Mena, J.A. and L. Niño Cont
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Robinson, B. 2010 Smuggled Masses:
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2013 Children on the Run: Unaccompa
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12 THE UNITED STATES Sheldon X. Zha
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a long history of admitting large n
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During the 1980 and 1990s, Chinese
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Migrant smuggling in San Diego San
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Mexican Migration Project (MMP) Sur
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Migration, either regular or irregu
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Once migrant smuggling is framed as
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In a market environment where goods
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Most policymakers as well as border
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Cornelius, W.A. and J.M. Lewis (eds
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Roberts, B. et al. 2010 An Analysis
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17 route des Morillons, P.O. Box 17
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Migrant Smuggling Data and Research

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